1932

Abstract

Humans exhibit a suite of biases when making economic decisions. We review recent research on the origins of human decision making by examining whether similar choice biases are seen in nonhuman primates, our closest phylogenetic relatives. We propose that comparative studies can provide insight into four major questions about the nature of human choice biases that cannot be addressed by studies of our species alone. First, research with other primates can address the evolution of human choice biases and identify shared versus human-unique tendencies in decision making. Second, primate studies can constrain hypotheses about the psychological mechanisms underlying such biases. Third, comparisons of closely related species can identify when distinct mechanisms underlie related biases by examining evolutionary dissociations in choice strategies. Finally, comparative work can provide insight into the biological rationality of economically irrational preferences.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015310
2015-01-03
2024-10-11
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/66/1/annurev-psych-010814-015310.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015310&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abe H, Lee D. 2011. Distributed coding of actual and hypothetical outcomes in the orbital and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Neuron 70:731–41 [Google Scholar]
  2. Addessi E, Bellagamba F, Delfino A, De Petrillo F, Focaroli V. et al. 2014. Waiting by mistake: Symbolic representation of rewards modulated intertemporal choice in capuchin monkeys, preschool children, and adult humans. Cognition 130:428–41 [Google Scholar]
  3. Addessi E, Crescimbene L, Visalberghi E. 2007. Do capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) use tokens as symbols?. Proc. R. Soc. B 274:2579–85Shows that monkeys can learn that tokens are symbols of quantity and can flexibly compare the value of different tokens. [Google Scholar]
  4. Addessi E, Paglieri F, Beran M, Evans T, Macchitella L. et al. 2013. Delay choice versus delay maintenance: different measures of delayed gratification in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). J. Comp. Psychol. 127:392–98 [Google Scholar]
  5. Addessi E, Paglieri F, Focaroli V. 2011. The ecological rationality of delay tolerance: insights from capuchin monkeys. Cognition 119:142–47 [Google Scholar]
  6. Addessi E, Rossi S. 2011. Tokens improve capuchin performance in the reverse-reward contingency task. Proc. R. Soc. B 278:849–54 [Google Scholar]
  7. Amici F, Aureli F, Call J. 2008. Fission-fusion dynamics, behavioral flexibility and inhibitory control in primates. Curr. Biol. 18:1415–19 [Google Scholar]
  8. Anderson JR, Awazu S, Fujita K. 2000. Can squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) learn self-control? A study using food array selection tests and reverse-reward contingency. J. Exp. Psychol.: Anim. Behav. Process. 26:87–97 [Google Scholar]
  9. Aronson E. 1968. Dissonance theory: progress and problems. Theories of Cognitive Consistency: A Sourcebook RP Abelson, WJ McGuire, TM Newcomb, MJ Rosenberg, PH Tannenbaum 5–27 Chicago: Rand McNally [Google Scholar]
  10. Barton RA. 1996. Neocortex size and behavioral ecology in primates. Proc. R. Soc. B 263:173–77 [Google Scholar]
  11. Barton RA. 2006. Primate brain evolution: integrating comparative, neurophysiological, and ethological data. Evol. Anthropol. 15:224–36 [Google Scholar]
  12. Bateson M, Kacelnik A. 1996. Rate currencies and the foraging starling: the fallacy of the averages revisited. Behav. Ecol. 7:341–52 [Google Scholar]
  13. Bautista LM, Tinbergen J, Kacelnik A. 2001. To walk or to fly? How birds choose among foraging modes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:1089–94 [Google Scholar]
  14. Beggan JK. 1992. On the social nature of nonsocial perception: the mere ownership effect. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 62:229–37 [Google Scholar]
  15. Belk RW. 1988. Possessions and the extended self. J. Consum. Res. 15:139–68 [Google Scholar]
  16. Belk RW. 1991. The ineluctable mysteries of possessions. J. Soc. Behav. Personal. 6:17–55 [Google Scholar]
  17. Bell DE. 1982. Regret in decision-making under uncertainty. Oper. Res. 30:961–81 [Google Scholar]
  18. Bem DJ. 1967. Self-perception: an alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena. Psychol. Rev. 74:183–200 [Google Scholar]
  19. Beran MJ. 2002. Maintenance of self-imposed delay of gratification by four chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and an orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus). J. Gen. Psychol. 129:49–66 [Google Scholar]
  20. Beran MJ, Evans TA. 2006. Maintenance of delay of gratification by four chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): the effects of delayed reward visibility, experimenter presence, and extended delay intervals. Behav. Process. 73:315–24 [Google Scholar]
  21. Beran MJ, Savage-Rumbaugh ES, Pate JL, Rumbauh DM. 1999. Delay of gratification in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Dev. Psychobiol. 34:119–27 [Google Scholar]
  22. Blanchard TC, Pearson JM, Hayden BY. 2013. Postreward delays and systematic biases in measures of animal temporal discounting. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 110:15491–96 [Google Scholar]
  23. Blanchard TC, Wolfe LS, Vlaev I, Winston JS, Hayden BY. 2014. Biases in preferences for sequences of outcomes in monkeys. Cognition 130:289–99Shows that monkeys exhibit peak-end biases by over-weighting the most extreme event and later-occurring events in reward sequences. [Google Scholar]
  24. Boysen ST, Berntson GG. 1995. Responses to quantity: perceptual versus cognitive mechanisms in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). J. Exp. Psychol.: Anim. Behav. Process. 21:82–86 [Google Scholar]
  25. Boysen ST, Berntson GG, Hannan MB, Cacioppo JT. 1996. Quantity-based interference and symbolic representations in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). J. Exp. Psychol.: Anim. Behav. Process. 22:76–86 [Google Scholar]
  26. Boysen ST, Mukobi KL, Berntson GG. 1999. Overcoming response bias using symbolic representations of number by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Anim. Learn. Behav. 27:229–35 [Google Scholar]
  27. Brehm JW. 1956. Postdecision changes in the desirability of alternatives. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol. 52:384–89 [Google Scholar]
  28. Brosnan SF, Beran MJ. 2009. Trading behavior between conspecifics in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. J. Comp. Psychol. 123:181–94 [Google Scholar]
  29. Brosnan SF, de Waal FBM. 2004. A concept of value during experimental exchange in brown capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella. Folia Primatol. 75:317–30 [Google Scholar]
  30. Brosnan SF, de Waal FBM. 2005. Responses to a simple barter task in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. Primates 46:173–82 [Google Scholar]
  31. Brosnan SF, Grady MF, Lambeth SP, Schapiro SJ, Beran MJ. 2008. Chimpanzee autarky. PLOS ONE 3:e1518 [Google Scholar]
  32. Brosnan SF, Jones OD, Gardner M, Lambeth SP, Schapiro SJ. 2012. Evolution and the expression of biases: situational value changes the endowment effect in chimpanzees. Evol. Hum. Behav. 33:378–86 [Google Scholar]
  33. Brosnan SF, Jones OD, Lambeth SP, Mareno MC, Richardson AS, Schapiro SJ. 2007. Endowment effects in chimpanzees. Curr. Biol. 17:1–4First demonstration that chimpanzees exhibit an endowment effect, preferring items they possess to items they can acquire through exchange. [Google Scholar]
  34. Brunner D. 1999. Preference for sequences of rewards: further tests of a parallel discounting model. Behav. Process. 45:87–99 [Google Scholar]
  35. Brunner D, Gibbon J. 1995. Value of food aggregates: parallel versus serial discounting. Anim. Behav. 50:1627–34 [Google Scholar]
  36. Byrne RMJ. 2002. Mental models and counterfactual thoughts about what might have been. Trends Cogn. Sci. 6:426–31 [Google Scholar]
  37. Camerer C, Weber M. 1992. Recent developments in modeling preferences: uncertainty and ambiguity. J. Risk Uncertain. 5:325–70 [Google Scholar]
  38. Caraco T. 1981. Risk sensitivity and foraging. Ecology 62:527–31 [Google Scholar]
  39. Chen MK, Lakshminarayanan V, Santos LR. 2006. How basic are behavioral biases? Evidence from capuchin monkey trading behavior. J. Polit. Econ. 114:517–37First demonstration that other primates exhibit framing effects and loss aversion. [Google Scholar]
  40. Chen MK, Risen JL. 2009. Is choice a reliable predictor of choice? A comment on Sagarin and Skowronski. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 45:425–27 [Google Scholar]
  41. Clutton-Brock TH, Harvey PH. 1979. Comparison and adaptation. Proc. R. Soc. B 205:547–65 [Google Scholar]
  42. Coricelli G, Dolan RJ, Sirigu A. 2007. Brain, emotion, and decision making: the paradigmatic example of regret. Trends Cogn. Sci. 11:258–65 [Google Scholar]
  43. Cowles JT. 1937. Food-tokens as incentives for learning by chimpanzees. Comp. Psychol. Monogr. 14:51–96 [Google Scholar]
  44. Danziger S, Levav J, Avnaim-Pessoa L. 2011. Extraneous factors in judicial decisions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108:6889–92 [Google Scholar]
  45. Davies G. 2002. A History of Money: From Ancient Times to the Present Day Cardiff, UK: Univ. Wales Press [Google Scholar]
  46. De Martino B, Kumaran D, Seymour B, Dolan RJ. 2006. Frames, biases, and rational decision-making in the human brain. Science 313:684–87 [Google Scholar]
  47. Drayton LA, Brosnan SF, Carrigan J, Stoinski TS. 2013. Endowment effect in gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). J. Comp. Psychol. 127:365–69 [Google Scholar]
  48. Dufour V, Pelé M, Neumann M, Thierry B, Call J. 2009. Calculated reciprocity after all: computation behind token transfers in orangutans. Biol. Lett. 5:172–75 [Google Scholar]
  49. Dufour V, Pelé M, Sterck EHM, Thierry B. 2007. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) anticipation of food return: coping with waiting time in an exchange task. J. Comp. Psychol. 121:145–55 [Google Scholar]
  50. Egan L, Bloom P, Santos LR. 2010. Choice-induced preferences in the absence of choice: evidence from a blind two-choice paradigm with young children and capuchin monkeys. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 46:204–7 [Google Scholar]
  51. Egan L, Santos LR, Bloom P. 2007. The origins of cognitive dissonance: evidence from children and monkeys. Psychol. Sci. 18:978–83First demonstration that capuchins exhibit choice-induced preference changes, devaluing options they previously chose against. [Google Scholar]
  52. Ellsberg D. 1961. Risk, ambiguity, and the Savage axioms. Q. J. Econ. 75:643–69 [Google Scholar]
  53. Endler JA. 1986. Natural Selection in the Wild Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  54. Evans TA, Beran MJ. 2007a. Chimpanzees use self-distraction to cope with impulsivity. Biol. Lett. 3:599–602Shows that chimpanzees, like human children, are better able to delay gratification when they can divert attention from the temptation of immediate rewards. [Google Scholar]
  55. Evans TA, Beran MJ. 2007b. Delay of gratification and delayed maintenance by rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). J. Gen. Psychol. 134:199–216 [Google Scholar]
  56. Evans TA, Beran MJ, Paglieri F, Addessi E. 2012. Delaying gratification for food and tokens in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): When quantity is salient, symbolic stimuli do not improve performance. Anim. Cogn. 15:539–48 [Google Scholar]
  57. Fawcett TW, McNamara JM, Houston HI. 2012. When is it adaptive to be patient? A general framework for evaluating delayed rewards. Behav. Process. 89:128–36 [Google Scholar]
  58. Flemming TM, Jones OD, Mayo L, Stoinski T, Brosnan SF. 2012. The endowment effect in orangutans. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 25:285–98 [Google Scholar]
  59. Franciosi R, Kujal P, Michelitsch R, Smith V, Deng G. 1996. Experimental tests of the endowment effect. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 30:213–26 [Google Scholar]
  60. Frederick S, Loewenstein G, O'Donoghue T. 2002. Time discounting and time preference: a critical review. J. Econ. Lit. 2:351–401 [Google Scholar]
  61. Genesove D, Mayer C. 2001. Loss aversion and seller behavior: evidence from the housing market. Q. J. Econ. 116:1233–60 [Google Scholar]
  62. Genty E, Palmier C, Roeder JJ. 2004. Learning to suppress responses to the larger of two rewards in two species of lemurs, Eulemur fulvus and E. macaco. Anim. Behav. 67:925–32 [Google Scholar]
  63. Gigerenzer G, Goldstein DG. 1996. Reasoning the fast and frugal way: models of bounded rationality. Psychol. Rev. 103:650–69 [Google Scholar]
  64. Gigerenzer G, Selten R. 2001. Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Toolbox Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  65. Gigerenzer G, Todd PM. ABC Res. Group 1999. Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  66. Green L, Fristoe N, Myerson J. 1994. Temporal discounting and preference reversals in choice between delayed outcomes. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 1:383–89 [Google Scholar]
  67. Green L, Myerson J, Holt DD, Slevin JR, Estle SJ. 2004. Discounting of delayed food rewards in pigeons and rats: Is there a magnitude effect?. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 81:39–50 [Google Scholar]
  68. Hammerstein P, Hagen EH. 2005. The second wave of evolutionary economics in biology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 20:604–9 [Google Scholar]
  69. Harbaugh WT, Krause K. 2002. Risk attitudes of children and adults: choices over small and large probability gains and losses. Exp. Econ. 5:53–84 [Google Scholar]
  70. Hare B. 2011. From hominoid to hominid mind: What changed and why?. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 40:293–309 [Google Scholar]
  71. Hare B, Wobber V, Wrangam R. 2012. The self-domestication hypothesis: Evolution of bonobo psychology is due to selection against aggression. Anim. Behav. 83:573–85 [Google Scholar]
  72. Harmon-Jones E, Mills J. 1999. Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc. [Google Scholar]
  73. Haun DBM, Nawroth C, Call J. 2011. Great apes' risk-taking strategies in a decision making task. PLOS ONE 6:e28801 [Google Scholar]
  74. Hayden BY, Heilbronner SR, Platt ML. 2010. Ambiguity aversion in rhesus macaques. Front. Neurosci. 4:166 [Google Scholar]
  75. Hayden BY, Pearson JM, Platt ML. 2009. Fictive reward signals in the anterior cingulate cortex. Science 324:948–50 [Google Scholar]
  76. Heilbronner SH, Rosati AG, Hare B, Hauser MD. 2008. A fruit in the hand or two in the bush? Divergent risk preferences in chimpanzees and bonobos. Biol. Lett. 4:246–49 [Google Scholar]
  77. Herrmann E, Call J, Hernandez-Lloreda MV, Hare B, Tomasello M. 2007. Humans have evolved specialized skills of social cognition: the cultural intelligence hypothesis. Science 317:1360–66 [Google Scholar]
  78. Herrmann E, Hare B, Call J, Tomasello M. 2010. Differences in the cognitive skills of bonobos and chimpanzees. PLOS ONE 5:e12438 [Google Scholar]
  79. Hill K, Barton M, Hurtado M. 2009. The emergence of human uniqueness: characters underlying behavioral modernity. Evol. Anthropol. 18:187–200 [Google Scholar]
  80. Houston AI. 1997. Natural selection and context-dependent values. Proc. R. Soc. B 264:1539–41 [Google Scholar]
  81. Houston AI, McNamara JM. 1999. Models of Adaptive Behaviour: An Approach Based on State Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  82. Houston AI, McNamara JM, Steer MD. 2007a. Do we expect natural selection to produce rational behaviour?. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 362:1531–43Models the evolutionary consequences of decision making, showing that biologically optimal rules can produce economically “irrational” biases. [Google Scholar]
  83. Houston AI, McNamara JM, Steer MD. 2007b. Violations of transitivity under fitness maximization. Biol. Lett. 3:365–67 [Google Scholar]
  84. Hsu M, Bhatt M, Adolphs R, Tranel D, Camerer C. 2005. Neural systems responding to degrees of uncertainty in human decision-making. Science 310:1680–83 [Google Scholar]
  85. Huettel SA, Stowe JC, Gordon EM, Warner BT, Platt ML. 2006. Neural signatures of economic preferences for risk and ambiguity. Neuron 49:765–75 [Google Scholar]
  86. Hwang J, Kim S, Lee D. 2009. Temporal discounting and inter-temporal choice in rhesus monkeys. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 3:9 [Google Scholar]
  87. Johnson EJ, Haubl G, Keinan A. 2007. Aspects of endowment: a query theory account of loss aversion for simple objects. J. Exp. Psychol.: Learn. Mem. Cogn. 33:461–74 [Google Scholar]
  88. Johnson EJ, Hershey J, Meszaros J, Kunreuther H. 1993. Framing, probability distortions, and insurance decisions. J. Risk Uncertain. 7:35–51 [Google Scholar]
  89. Kacelnik A. 2003. The evolution of patience. Time and Decision: Economics and Psychological Perspectives on Intertemporal Choice G Loewenstein, D Read, R Baumeister 115–38 New York: Russell Sage Found. [Google Scholar]
  90. Kacelnik A. 2006. Meanings of rationality. Rational Animals? S Hurley, M Nudds 87–106 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  91. Kacelnik A, Bateson M. 1997. Risk-sensitivity: crossroads for theories of decision making. Trends Cogn. Sci. 1:304–9 [Google Scholar]
  92. Kacelnik A, Marsh B. 2002. Cost can increase preference in starlings. Anim. Behav. 63:245–50 [Google Scholar]
  93. Kahneman D. 2011. Thinking, Fast and Slow New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux [Google Scholar]
  94. Kahneman D, Fredrickson BL, Schreiber CA, Redelmeier DA. 1993. When more pain is preferred to less. Psychol. Sci. 4:401–5 [Google Scholar]
  95. Kahneman D, Knetsch J, Thaler R. 1990. Experimental tests of the endowment effect and the Coase theorem. J. Polit. Econ. 98:1325–48 [Google Scholar]
  96. Kahneman D, Knetsch JL, Thaler RH. 1991. Anomalies: the endowment effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias. J. Econ. Perspect. 5:193–206 [Google Scholar]
  97. Kahneman D, Tversky A. 1979. Prospect theory: an analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica 47:263–92 [Google Scholar]
  98. Kahneman D, Tversky A. 1996. On the reality of cognitive illusions. Psychol. Rev. 103:582–91 [Google Scholar]
  99. Kahneman D, Tversky A. 2000. Choices, Values, and Frames Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  100. Kamil AC, Krebs JR, Pulliam HR. 1987. Foraging Behavior New York: Plenum [Google Scholar]
  101. Kanngiesser P, Santos LR, Hood BM, Call J. 2011. The limits of endowment effects in great apes (Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, Pongo pygmaeus). J. Comp. Psychol. 125:436–45 [Google Scholar]
  102. Kano T. 1992. The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  103. Kelleher RT. 1957. Conditioned reinforcement in chimpanzees. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 50:571–75 [Google Scholar]
  104. Kralik JD. 2005. Inhibitory control and response selection in problem solving: how cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) overcome a bias for selecting the larger quantity of food. J. Comp. Psychol. 119:78–89 [Google Scholar]
  105. Kralik JD, Sampson WWL. 2012. A fruit in hand is worth many more in the bush: steep spatial discounting by free-ranging rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Behav. Process. 89:197–202 [Google Scholar]
  106. Krebs JR, Davies NB. 1978. Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach Oxford, UK: Blackwell Sci. [Google Scholar]
  107. Lakshminarayanan V, Chen MK, Santos LR. 2008. Endowment effect in capuchin monkeys. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 363:3837–44 [Google Scholar]
  108. Lakshminarayanan VR, Chen MK, Santos LR. 2011. The evolution of decision-making under risk: framing effects in monkey risk preferences. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 47:689–93 [Google Scholar]
  109. Lea SEG, Webley P. 2006. Money as tool, money as drug: the biological psychology of a strong incentive. Behav. Brain Sci. 29:161–209 [Google Scholar]
  110. Lee D. 2008. Game theory and neural basis of social decision making. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 11:404–9 [Google Scholar]
  111. Lee D, McGreevy BP, Barraclough DJ. 2005. Learning and decision making in monkeys during a rock-paper-scissors game. Cogn. Brain Res. 25:416–30First demonstration that monkeys engage in counterfactual reasoning: Monkeys adjust their behavior in response to what they could have received had they chosen differently. [Google Scholar]
  112. Lerner JS, Small DA, Loewenstein G. 2004. Heart strings and purse strings: carryover effects of emotions on economic decisions. Psychol. Sci. 15:337–41 [Google Scholar]
  113. Loewenstein G, Read D, Baumeister R. 2003. Time and Decision: Economic and Psychological Perspectives on Intertemporal Choice New York: Russell Sage Found. [Google Scholar]
  114. Loomes G, Sugden R. 1982. Regret theory: an alternative theory of rational choice under uncertainty. Econ. J. 92:805–24 [Google Scholar]
  115. MacLean EL, Matthews LJ, Hare BA, Nunn CL, Anderson RC. et al. 2012. How does cognition evolve? Phylogenetic comparative psychology. Anim. Cogn. 15:223–38 [Google Scholar]
  116. Malenky RK, Wrangham RW. 1993. A quantitative comparison of terrestrial herbaceous food consumption by Pan paniscus in the Lomako Forest, Zaire, and Pan troglodytes in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. Am. J. Primatol. 32:1–12 [Google Scholar]
  117. Marsh B, Kacelnik A. 2002. Framing effects and risky decisions in starlings. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:3352–55 [Google Scholar]
  118. Mayr E. 1982. The Growth of Biological Thought Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  119. Mazur JE. 1987. An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. Quantitative Analyses of Behavior: The Effect of Delay and of Intervening Events on Reinforcement Value ML Commons, JE Mazur, JA Nevin, H Rachlin 55–73 Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum [Google Scholar]
  120. McClure SM, Laibson DI, Loewenstein GF, Cohen JD. 2004. Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science 306:503–7 [Google Scholar]
  121. McCoy AN, Platt ML. 2002. Risk-sensitive neurons in macaque posterior cingulate cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 8:1120–27 [Google Scholar]
  122. Mischel W, Ebbesen EB. 1970. Attention in delay of gratification. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 16:329–37 [Google Scholar]
  123. Mischel W, Ebbesen EB, Zeiss AR. 1972. Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 21:204–18 [Google Scholar]
  124. Mischel W, Shoda Y, Rodriguez ML. 1989. Delay of gratification in children. Science 244:933–38 [Google Scholar]
  125. Fawcett TW, Fallenstein B, Higginson AD, Houston AI. Model. Anim. Decis. Group et al. 2014. The evolution of decision rules in complex environments. Trends Cogn. Sci. 18:153–61 [Google Scholar]
  126. Morewedge CM, Shu LL, Gilbert DT, Wilson TD. 2009. Bad riddance or good rubbish? Ownership and not loss aversion causes the endowment effect. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 45:947–51 [Google Scholar]
  127. Mucalhy N, Call J. 2006. Apes save tools for future use. Science 312:1038–40 [Google Scholar]
  128. Odean T. 1998. Are investors reluctant to realize their losses?. J. Financ. 53:1775–98 [Google Scholar]
  129. Osvath M, Osvath H. 2008. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and orangutan (Pongo abelii) forethought: self-control and pre-experience in the face of future tool use. Anim. Cogn. 11:661–74 [Google Scholar]
  130. Parish AR. 1996. Female relationships in bonobos (Pan paniscus): evidence for bonding, cooperation, and female dominance in a male-philopatric species. Hum. Nat. 7:61–96 [Google Scholar]
  131. Parrish AE, Perdue BM, Evans TA, Beran MJ. 2013. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) transfer tokens repeatedly with a partner to accumulate rewards in a self-control task. Anim. Cogn. 16:627–36 [Google Scholar]
  132. Parrish AE, Perdue BM, Stromberg EE, Bania AE, Evans TA, Beran MJ. 2014. Delay of gratification by orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) in the accumulation task. J. Comp. Psychol. 128:209–14 [Google Scholar]
  133. Pelé M, Dufour V, Micheletta J, Thierry B. 2010. Long-tailed macaques display unexpected waiting abilities in exchange tasks. Anim. Cogn. 13:263–71 [Google Scholar]
  134. Pelé M, Dufour V, Thierry B, Call J. 2009. Token transfers among great apes (Gorilla gorilla, Pongo pygmaeus, Pan paniscus, and Pan troglodytes): species differences, gestural requests, and reciprocal exchange. J. Comp. Psychol. 123:375–84 [Google Scholar]
  135. Pelé M, Micheletta J, Uhlrich P, Thierry B, Dufour V. 2011. Delay maintenance in Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) and brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Int. J. Primatol. 32:149–66 [Google Scholar]
  136. Platt ML, Hayden BY. 2011. Learning: not just the facts, ma'am, but the counterfactuals as well. PLOS Biol. 9e1001092 [Google Scholar]
  137. Platt ML, Huettel SA. 2008. Risky business: the neuroeconomics of decision making under uncertainty. Nat. Neurosci. 11:398–403 [Google Scholar]
  138. Pompilio L, Kacelnik A, Behmer ST. 2006. State-dependent learned valuation drives choice in an invertebrate. Science 311:1613–15 [Google Scholar]
  139. Rachlin H. 2000. The Science of Self-Control Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  140. Ramseyer A, Pelé M, Dufour V, Chauvin C, Thierry B. 2006. Accepting loss: the temporal limits of reciprocity in brown capuchin monkeys. Proc. R. Soc. B 273:179–84 [Google Scholar]
  141. Real LA. 1991. Animal choice behavior and the evolution of cognitive architecture. Science 253:980–86 [Google Scholar]
  142. Redelmeier DA, Katz J, Kahneman D. 2003. Memories of colonoscopy: a randomized trial. Pain 104:187–94 [Google Scholar]
  143. Roberts WA. 2002. Are animals stuck in time?. Psychol. Bull. 128:473–89 [Google Scholar]
  144. Rosati AG, Hare B. 2011. Chimpanzees and bonobos distinguish between risk and ambiguity. Biol. Lett. 7:15–18 [Google Scholar]
  145. Rosati AG, Hare B. 2012. Decision-making across social contexts: Competition increases preferences for risk in chimpanzees and bonobos. Anim. Behav. 84:869–79 [Google Scholar]
  146. Rosati AG, Hare B. 2013. Chimpanzees and bonobos exhibit emotional responses to decision outcomes. PLOS ONE 8:e63058 [Google Scholar]
  147. Rosati AG, Stevens JR. 2009. Rational decisions: the adaptive nature of context-dependent choice. Rational Animals, Irrational Humans AP Watanabe, L Blaisdell, L Huber, A Young 101–17 Tokyo: Keio Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  148. Rosati AG, Stevens JR, Hare B, Hauser MD. 2007. The evolutionary origins of human patience: temporal preferences in chimpanzees, bonobos, and human adults. Curr. Biol. 17:1663–68Shows that chimpanzees and bonobos, two closely related species, exhibit different levels of patience in line with predictions from their wild feeding ecology. [Google Scholar]
  149. Rosati AG, Stevens JR, Hauser MD. 2006. The effect of handling time on temporal discounting in two New World primates. Anim. Behav. 71:1379–87 [Google Scholar]
  150. Rosati AG, Wobber V, Hughes K, Santos LR. 2014. Comparative developmental psychology: How is human cognitive development unique?. Evol. Psychol. 12:448–73 [Google Scholar]
  151. Rozin P, Royzman EB. 2001. Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 5:296–320 [Google Scholar]
  152. Rudebeck PH, Walton ME, Smyth AN, Bannerman DM, Rushworth MSF. 2006. Separate neural pathways process different decision costs. Nat. Neurosci. 9:1161–68 [Google Scholar]
  153. Santos LR, Chen MK. 2009. The evolution of rational and irrational economic behavior: evidence and insight from a non-human primate species. Neuroeconomics: Decision Making and the Brain PW Glimcher, CF Camerer, E Fehr, RA Poldrack 81–94 London: Elsevier [Google Scholar]
  154. Santos LR, Gendler TS. 2014. What scientific idea is ready for retirement? Knowing is half the battle. Edge.org. http://edge.org/response-detail/25436
  155. Schuck-Paim C, Kacelnik A. 2002. Rationality in risk-sensitive foraging choices by starlings. Anim. Behav. 64:869–79 [Google Scholar]
  156. Schuck-Paim C, Pompilio L, Kacelnik A. 2004. State-dependent decisions cause apparent violations of rationality in animal choice. PLOS Biol. 2:e402 [Google Scholar]
  157. Schweighofer N, Shishida K, Han CE, Okamoto Y, Tanaka SC. et al. 2006. Humans can adopt optimal discounting strategy under real-time constraints. PLOS Comput. Biol. 2:1349–56 [Google Scholar]
  158. Shafir S, Waite TA, Smith BH. 2002. Context-dependent violations of rational choice in honeybees (Apis mellifera) and gray jays (Perisoreus canadensis). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 51:180–87 [Google Scholar]
  159. Sharot T, Velasquez CM, Dolan RJ. 2010. Do decisions shape preference? Evidence from blind choice. Psychol. Sci. 21:1231–35 [Google Scholar]
  160. Shifferman EM. 2009. Its own reward: lessons to be drawn from the reversed-reward contingency paradigm. Anim. Cogn. 12:547–58 [Google Scholar]
  161. Sousa C, Matsuzawa T. 2001. The use of tokens as rewards and tools by chimpanzees. Anim. Cogn. 4:213–21 [Google Scholar]
  162. Steele CM. 1988. The psychology of self-affirmation: sustaining the integrity of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 22 L Berkowitz 261–301 San Diego, CA: Academic [Google Scholar]
  163. Stephens DW, Anderson D. 2001. The adaptive value of preference for immediacy: when shortsighted rules have farsighted consequences. Behav. Ecol. 12:330–39 [Google Scholar]
  164. Stephens DW, Kerr B, Fernandez-Juricic E. 2004. Impulsivity without discounting: the ecological rationality hypothesis. Proc. R. Soc. B 271:2459–65 [Google Scholar]
  165. Stephens DW, McLinn CM. 2003. Choice and context: testing a simple short-term choice rule. Anim. Behav. 66:59–70 [Google Scholar]
  166. Sterelny K. 2012. The Evolved Apprentice Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  167. Stevens JR. 2014. Evolutionary pressures on primate intertemporal choice. Proc. R. Soc. B 289:20140499 [Google Scholar]
  168. Stevens JR, Hallinan EV, Hauser MD. 2005a. The ecology and evolution of patience in two New World monkeys. Biol. Lett. 1:223–26 [Google Scholar]
  169. Stevens JR, Muhlhoff N. 2012. Intertemporal choice in lemurs. Behav. Process. 89:121–27 [Google Scholar]
  170. Stevens JR, Rosati AG, Heilbronner SR, Muelhoff N. 2011. Waiting for grapes: expectancy and delayed gratification in bonobos. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 24:99–111 [Google Scholar]
  171. Stevens JR, Rosati AG, Ross K, Hauser MD. 2005b. Will travel for food: spatial discounting in two New World monkeys. Curr. Biol. 15:1855–60Compares effort discounting in two monkey species, showing that work trade-off problems may be distinct from temporal trade-off problems. [Google Scholar]
  172. Stevens JR, Stephens DW. 2008. Patience. Curr. Biol. 18:R11–12 [Google Scholar]
  173. Stevenson MF, Rylands AB. 1988. The marmosets, genus Callithrix. Ecology and Behavior of Neotropical Primates 2 RA Mittermeier, AB Rylands, AF Coimbra-Filho, GAB Fonseca 131–222 Washington, DC: World Wildl. Fund [Google Scholar]
  174. Striedter GF. 2005. Principles of Brain Evolution Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Assoc. [Google Scholar]
  175. Suddendorf T, Corballis MC. 2007a. The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel, and is it unique to humans?. Behav. Brain Sci. 30:299–351 [Google Scholar]
  176. Suddendorf T, Corballis MC. 2007b. Mental time travel and the evolution of the human mind. Genet. Soc. Pychol. Monogr. 123:133–68 [Google Scholar]
  177. Tanaka M, Yamamoto S. 2009. Token transfer between mother and offspring chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): mother-offspring interaction in a competitive situation. Anim. Cogn. 12:S19–26 [Google Scholar]
  178. Thaler RH. 1980. Toward a positive theory of consumer choice. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 1:39–60 [Google Scholar]
  179. Thaler RH, Sunstein CR. 2008. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  180. Tobin H, Logue AW. 1994. Self-control across species (Columba livia, Homo sapiens, and Rattus norvegicus). J. Comp. Psychol. 108:126–33 [Google Scholar]
  181. Tobin H, Logue AW, Chelonis JJ, Ackerman KT. 1996. Self-control in the monkey Macaca fascicularis. Anim. Learn. Behav. 24:168–74 [Google Scholar]
  182. Tomasello M, Carpenter M, Call J, Behne T, Moll H. 2005. Understanding and sharing intentions: the origins of cultural cognition. Behav. Brain Sci. 28:675–735 [Google Scholar]
  183. Tversky A. 1969. Intransitivity of preferences. Psychol. Rev. 76:31–48 [Google Scholar]
  184. Tversky A, Kahneman D. 1981. The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science 211:453–58 [Google Scholar]
  185. Uher J, Call J. 2008. How the great apes (Pan troglodytes, Pongo pygmaeus, Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla) perform on the reversed reward contingency task II: transfer to new quantities, long-term retention, and the impact of quantity ratios. J. Comp. Psychol. 122:204–12 [Google Scholar]
  186. Vlamings PHM, Uher J, Call J. 2006. How the great apes (Pan troglodytes, Pongo pygmaeus, Pan paniscus, and Gorilla gorilla) perform on the reversed contingency task: the effects of food quantity and food visibility. J. Exp. Psychol.: Anim. Behav. Process. 32:60–70 [Google Scholar]
  187. Vohs KD, Mead NL, Goode MR. 2006. The psychological consequences of money. Science 314:1154–56 [Google Scholar]
  188. Vohs KD, Mead NL, Goode MR. 2008. Merely activating the concept of money changes personal and interpersonal behavior. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 17:208–12 [Google Scholar]
  189. von Neumann J, Morgenstern O. 1947. Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2nd ed.. [Google Scholar]
  190. Waite TA. 2001a. Background context and decision making in hoarding gray jays. Behav. Ecol. 12:318–24 [Google Scholar]
  191. Waite TA. 2001b. Intransitive preferences in hoarding gray jays (Perisoreus canadensis). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 50:116–21 [Google Scholar]
  192. Walton ME, Rudebeck PH, Bannerman DM, Rushworth MSF. 2007. Calculating the cost of acting in frontal cortex. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1104:340–56 [Google Scholar]
  193. West S, Jett SE, Beckman T, Vonk J. 2010. The phylogenetic roots of cognitive dissonance. J. Comp. Psychol. 124:425–32 [Google Scholar]
  194. White FJ. 1989. Ecological correlates of pygmy chimpanzee social structure. Comparative Socioecology: The Behavioral Ecology of Human and Other Mammals V Standen, RA Foley 151–64 Oxford, UK: Blackwell Sci. [Google Scholar]
  195. White FJ. 1998. Seasonality and socioecology: the importance of variation in fruit abundance to bonobo sociality. Int. J. Primatol. 19:1013–27 [Google Scholar]
  196. White FJ, Wrangham RW. 1988. Feeding competition and patch size in the chimpanzee species Pan paniscus and Pan troglodytes. Behaviour 105:148–64 [Google Scholar]
  197. Wolfe JB. 1936. Effectiveness of token rewards for chimpanzees. Comp. Psychol. Monogr. 12:1–72 [Google Scholar]
  198. Won YJ, Hey J. 2005. Divergence population genetics of chimpanzees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 22:297–307 [Google Scholar]
  199. Wrangham R. 2000. Why are male chimpanzees more gregarious than mothers? A scramble competition hypothesis. Primate Males: Causes and Consequences of Variation in Group Composition P Kappeler 248–58 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  200. Wrangham R, Peterson D. 1996. Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence New York: Houghton Mifflin [Google Scholar]
  201. Wrangham R, Pilbeam D. 2001. African apes as time machines. All Apes Great and Small 1 African Apes BMF Galdikas, NE Briggs, LK Sheeran, GL Shapiro, J Goodall 5–17 New York: Springer [Google Scholar]
  202. Xu ER, Knight EJ, Kralik JD. 2011. Rhesus monkeys lack a consistent peak-end effect. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 64:2301–15 [Google Scholar]
  203. Zeelenberg M. 1999. Anticipated regret, expected feedback, and behavioral decision making. J. Behav. Decis. Mak. 12:93–106 [Google Scholar]
  204. Zeelenberg M, Beattie J, van der Plight J, de Vries NK. 1996. Consequences of regret aversion: effects of expected feedback on risky decision making. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 65:148–58 [Google Scholar]
  205. Zeelenberg M, van Dijk WW, van der Plight J, Manstead ASR, van Empelen P, Reinderman D. 1998. Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: the role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 75:117–41 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015310
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015310
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error