Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis

Literature Cited

1. Ackerman R, Thompson VA. 2017. Meta-reasoning: monitoring and control of thinking and reasoning. Trends Cogn. Sci. 21:8607–17
   [Google Scholar]
2. Adler WT, Ma WJ. 2018. Comparing Bayesian and non-Bayesian accounts of human confidence reports. PLOS Comput. Biol. 14:11e1006572
   [Google Scholar]
3. Aguilar-Lleyda D, de Gardelle V. 2021. Confidence guides priority between forthcoming tasks. Sci. Rep. 11:118320
   [Google Scholar]
4. Ais J, Zylberberg A, Barttfeld P, Sigman M. 2016. Individual consistency in the accuracy and distribution of confidence judgments. Cognition 146:377–86
   [Google Scholar]
5. Aitchison L, Bang D, Bahrami B, Latham PE. 2015. Doubly Bayesian analysis of confidence in perceptual decision-making. PLOS Comput. Biol. 11:10e1004519
   [Google Scholar]
6. Allen M, Frank D, Schwarzkopf DS, Fardo F, Winston JS et al. 2016. Unexpected arousal modulates the influence of sensory noise on confidence. eLife 5:403
   [Google Scholar]
7. Allen M, Glen JC, Müllensiefen D, Schwarzkopf DS, Fardo F et al. 2017. Metacognitive ability correlates with hippocampal and prefrontal microstructure. NeuroImage 149:415–23
   [Google Scholar]
8. Alter AL, Oppenheimer DM. 2009. Uniting the tribes of fluency to form a metacognitive nation. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 13:3219–35
   [Google Scholar]
9. Baars BJ. 1993. A Cognitive Theory of Consciousness Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
10. Bahrami B, Olsen K, Latham PE, Roepstorff A, Rees G, Frith CD. 2010. Optimally interacting minds. Science 329:59951081–85
    [Google Scholar]
11. Baird B, Cieslak M, Smallwood J, Grafton ST, Schooler JW. 2015. Regional white matter variation associated with domain-specific metacognitive accuracy. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 27:3440–52
    [Google Scholar]
12. Baird B, Mrazek MD, Phillips DT, Schooler JW. 2014. Domain-specific enhancement of metacognitive ability following meditation training. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 143:51972–79
    [Google Scholar]
13. Baird B, Smallwood J, Gorgolewski KJ, Margulies DS. 2013. Medial and lateral networks in anterior prefrontal cortex support metacognitive ability for memory and perception. J. Neurosci. 33:4216657–65
    [Google Scholar]
14. Balsdon T, Wyart V, Mamassian P. 2020. Confidence controls perceptual evidence accumulation. Nat. Commun. 11:11753
    [Google Scholar]
15. Bang D, Aitchison L, Moran R, Herce Castanon S, Rafiee B et al. 2017. Confidence matching in group decision-making. Nat. Hum. Behav. 1:61–7
    [Google Scholar]
16. Bang D, Ershadmanesh S, Nili H, Fleming SM. 2020. Private–public mappings in human prefrontal cortex. eLife 9:e56477
    [Google Scholar]
17. Bang D, Fleming SM. 2018. Distinct encoding of decision confidence in human medial prefrontal cortex. PNAS 115:236082–87
    [Google Scholar]
18. Bang D, Moran R, Daw ND, Fleming SM. 2022. Neurocomputational mechanisms of confidence in self and others. Nat. Commun. 13:14238
    [Google Scholar]
19. Boldt A, de Gardelle V, Yeung N. 2017. The impact of evidence reliability on sensitivity and bias in decision confidence. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 43:81520–31
    [Google Scholar]
20. Boldt A, Schiffer AM, Waszak F, Yeung N. 2019. Confidence predictions affect performance confidence and neural preparation in perceptual decision making. Sci. Rep. 9:14031
    [Google Scholar]
21. Boldt A, Yeung N. 2015. Shared neural markers of decision confidence and error detection. J. Neurosci. 35:83478–84
    [Google Scholar]
22. Boundy-Singer ZM, Ziemba CM, Goris RLT. 2023. Confidence reflects a noisy decision reliability estimate. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7:1142–54
    [Google Scholar]
23. Busey TA, Tunnicliff J, Loftus GR, Loftus EF. 2000. Accounts of the confidence-accuracy relation in recognition memory. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 7:126–48
    [Google Scholar]
24. Carpenter J, Sherman MT, Kievit RA, Seth AK, Lau H, Fleming SM. 2019. Domain-general enhancements of metacognitive ability through adaptive training. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 148:151–64
    [Google Scholar]
25. Carruthers P. 2009. How we know our own minds: the relationship between mindreading and metacognition. Behav. Brain Sci. 32:2121–38
    [Google Scholar]
26. Carruthers P, Williams DM. 2022. Model-free metacognition. Cognition 225:105117
    [Google Scholar]
27. Caziot B, Mamassian P. 2021. Perceptual confidence judgments reflect self-consistency. J. Vis. 21:128
    [Google Scholar]
28. Charles L, Van Opstal F, Marti S, Dehaene S. 2013. Distinct brain mechanisms for conscious versus subliminal error detection. NeuroImage 73:80–94
    [Google Scholar]
29. Cortese A, Amano K, Koizumi A, Kawato M, Lau HC. 2016. Multivoxel neurofeedback selectively modulates confidence without changing perceptual performance. Nat. Commun. 7:13669
    [Google Scholar]
30. Dayan P. 2022. Metacognitive information theory. PsyArXiv, Sept. 18. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/azujr
31. de Gardelle V, Le Corre F, Mamassian P 2016. Confidence as a common currency between vision and audition. PLOS ONE 11:1e0147901
    [Google Scholar]
32. de Gardelle V, Mamassian P. 2014. Does confidence use a common currency across two visual tasks?. Psychol. Sci. 11:1e0147901
    [Google Scholar]
33. De Martino B, Fleming SM, Garrett N, Dolan RJ. 2013. Confidence in value-based choice. Nat. Neurosci. 16:1105–10
    [Google Scholar]
34. Dehaene S, Lau HC, Kouider S. 2017. What is consciousness, and could machines have it?. Science 358:6362486–92
    [Google Scholar]
35. Denison RN, Adler WT, Carrasco M, Ma WJ. 2018. Humans incorporate attention-dependent uncertainty into perceptual decisions and confidence. PNAS 115:4311090–95
    [Google Scholar]
36. Desender K, Ridderinkhof KR, Murphy PR. 2021. Understanding neural signals of post-decisional performance monitoring: an integrative review. eLife 10:e67556
    [Google Scholar]
37. Desender K, Vermeylen L, Verguts T. 2022. Dynamic influences on static measures of metacognition. Nat. Commun. 13:14208
    [Google Scholar]
38. Ernst MO, Banks MS. 2002. Humans integrate visual and haptic information in a statistically optimal fashion. Nature 415:6870429–33
    [Google Scholar]
39. Faivre N, Filevich E, Solovey G, Kühn S, Blanke O. 2018. Behavioral, modeling, and electrophysiological evidence for supramodality in human metacognition. J. Neurosci. 38:2263–77
    [Google Scholar]
40. Fiacconi CM, Peter EL, Owais S, Köhler S. 2016. Knowing by heart: Visceral feedback shapes recognition memory judgments. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 145:5559–72
    [Google Scholar]
41. Fischer H, Amelung D, Said N. 2019. The accuracy of German citizens' confidence in their climate change knowledge. Nat. Climate Change 9:10776–80
    [Google Scholar]
42. Fiser J, Berkes P, Orbán G, Lengyel M. 2010. Statistically optimal perception and learning: from behavior to neural representations. Trends Cogn. Sci. 14:3119–30
    [Google Scholar]
43. Flavell JH. 1979. Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. Am. Psychol. 34:10906–11
    [Google Scholar]
44. Fleming SM, Daw ND. 2017. Self-evaluation of decision-making: a general Bayesian framework for metacognitive computation. Psychol. Rev. 124:191–114
    [Google Scholar]
45. Fleming SM, Dolan RJ. 2012. The neural basis of metacognitive ability. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 367:15941338–49
    [Google Scholar]
46. Fleming SM, Huijgen J, Dolan RJ. 2012. Prefrontal contributions to metacognition in perceptual decision making. J. Neurosci. 32:186117–25
    [Google Scholar]
47. Fleming SM, Lau HC. 2014. How to measure metacognition. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:443
    [Google Scholar]
48. Fleming SM, Maniscalco B, Ko Y, Amendi N, Ro T, Lau HC. 2015. Action-specific disruption of perceptual confidence. Psychol. Sci. 26:189–98
    [Google Scholar]
49. Fleming SM, Ryu J, Golfinos JG, Blackmon KE. 2014. Domain-specific impairment in metacognitive accuracy following anterior prefrontal lesions. Brain 137:Pt. 102811–22
    [Google Scholar]
50. Fleming SM, van der Putten EJ, Daw ND. 2018. Neural mediators of changes of mind about perceptual decisions. Nat. Neurosci. 21:4617–24
    [Google Scholar]
51. Fleming SM, Weil RS, Nagy Z, Dolan RJ, Rees G. 2010. Relating introspective accuracy to individual differences in brain structure. Science 329:59981541–43
    [Google Scholar]
52. Fu Z, Beam D, Chung JM, Reed CM, Mamelak AN et al. 2022. The geometry of domain-general performance monitoring in the human medial frontal cortex. Science 376:6593eabm9922
    [Google Scholar]
53. Gallagher RM, Suddendorf T, Arnold DH. 2019. Confidence as a diagnostic tool for perceptual aftereffects. Sci. Rep. 9:17124
    [Google Scholar]
54. Geurts LS, Cooke JRH, van Bergen RS, Jehee JFM. 2022. Subjective confidence reflects representation of Bayesian probability in cortex. Nat. Hum. Behav. 6:2294–305
    [Google Scholar]
55. Gherman S, Philiastides M. 2018. Human VMPFC encodes early signatures of confidence in perceptual decisions. eLife 7:e38293
    [Google Scholar]
56. Goupil L, Kouider S. 2016. Behavioral and neural indices of metacognitive sensitivity in preverbal infants. Curr. Biol. 26:223038–45
    [Google Scholar]
57. Guggenmos M. 2021. Measuring metacognitive performance: type 1 performance dependence and test-retest reliability. Neurosci. Conscious. 2021:1niab040
    [Google Scholar]
58. Guggenmos M. 2022. Reverse engineering of metacognition. eLife 11:e75420
    [Google Scholar]
59. Guggenmos M, Wilbertz G, Hebart MN, Sterzer P. 2016. Mesolimbic confidence signals guide perceptual learning in the absence of external feedback. eLife 5:345
    [Google Scholar]
60. Hauser TU, Allen M, Purg N, Moutoussis M, Rees G, Dolan RJ. 2017. Noradrenaline blockade specifically enhances metacognitive performance. eLife 6:468
    [Google Scholar]
61. Hertz U, Palminteri S, Brunetti S, Olesen C, Frith CD, Bahrami B. 2017. Neural computations underpinning the strategic management of influence in advice giving. Nat. Commun. 8:11–12
    [Google Scholar]
62. Heyes C, Bang D, Shea N, Frith CD, Fleming SM. 2020. Knowing ourselves together: the cultural origins of metacognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 24:5349–62
    [Google Scholar]
63. Hoven M, Lebreton M, Engelmann JB, Denys D, Luigjes J, van Holst RJ. 2019. Abnormalities of confidence in psychiatry: an overview and future perspectives. Transl. Psychiatry 9:11–18
    [Google Scholar]
64. Hu X, Liu Z, Li T, Luo L. 2015. Influence of cue word perceptual information on metamemory accuracy in judgement of learning. Memory 24:3383–98
    [Google Scholar]
65. Hu X, Zheng J, Su N, Fan T, Yang C et al. 2021. A Bayesian inference model for metamemory. Psychol. Rev. 128:5824–55
    [Google Scholar]
66. Jiang S, Wang S, Wan X. 2022. Metacognition and mentalizing are associated with distinct neural representations of decision uncertainty. PLOS Biol. 20:5e3001301
    [Google Scholar]
67. Kepecs A, Mainen ZF. 2012. A computational framework for the study of confidence in humans and animals. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 367:15941322–37
    [Google Scholar]
68. Kepecs A, Uchida N, Zariwala H, Mainen Z. 2008. Neural correlates, computation and behavioural impact of decision confidence. Nature 455:7210227–31
    [Google Scholar]
69. Kersten D, Mamassian P, Yuille A. 2004. Object perception as Bayesian inference. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 55:271–304
    [Google Scholar]
70. Khalvati K, Kiani R, Rao RPN. 2021. Bayesian inference with incomplete knowledge explains perceptual confidence and its deviations from accuracy. Nat. Commun. 12:15704
    [Google Scholar]
71. Kiani R, Corthell L, Shadlen MN. 2014. Choice certainty is informed by both evidence and decision time. Neuron 84:61329–42
    [Google Scholar]
72. Kiani R, Shadlen MN. 2009. Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex. Science 324:5928759–64
    [Google Scholar]
73. Kitayama S, Markus HR, Matsumoto H, Norasakkunkit V. 1997. Individual and collective processes in the construction of the self: self-enhancement in the United States and self-criticism in Japan. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 72:61245–67
    [Google Scholar]
74. Koriat A. 1993. How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychol. Rev. 100:4609–39
    [Google Scholar]
75. Koriat A. 2012. The self-consistency model of subjective confidence. Psychol. Rev. 119:180–113
    [Google Scholar]
76. Kwok SC, Cai Y, Buckley MJ. 2019. Mnemonic introspection in macaques is dependent on superior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex but not orbitofrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 39:305922–34
    [Google Scholar]
77. Lak A, Costa GM, Romberg E, Koulakov AA, Mainen ZF, Kepecs A. 2014. Orbitofrontal cortex is required for optimal waiting based on decision confidence. Neuron 84:1190–201
    [Google Scholar]
78. Lak A, Nomoto K, Keramati M, Sakagami M, Kepecs A. 2017. Midbrain dopamine neurons signal belief in choice accuracy during a perceptual decision. Curr. Biol. 27:6821–32
    [Google Scholar]
79. Lebreton M, Abitbol R, Daunizeau J, Pessiglione M. 2015. Automatic integration of confidence in the brain valuation signal. Nat. Neurosci. 18:81159–67
    [Google Scholar]
80. Lee ALF, de Gardelle V, Mamassian P. 2021. Global visual confidence. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 28:41233–42
    [Google Scholar]
81. Li HH, Sprague TC, Yoo AH, Ma WJ, Curtis CE. 2021. Joint representation of working memory and uncertainty in human cortex. Neuron 109:223699–712.e6
    [Google Scholar]
82. Logan GD, Crump MJC. 2010. Cognitive illusions of authorship reveal hierarchical error detection in skilled typists. Science 330:6004683–86
    [Google Scholar]
83. Ma W, Beck J, Latham P, Pouget A. 2006. Bayesian inference with probabilistic population codes. Nat. Neurosci. 9:111432–38
    [Google Scholar]
84. Mamassian P, de Gardelle V. 2022. Modeling perceptual confidence and the confidence forced-choice paradigm. Psychol. Rev. 129:5976–98
    [Google Scholar]
85. Maniscalco B, Lau HC. 2012. A signal detection theoretic approach for estimating metacognitive sensitivity from confidence ratings. Conscious. Cogn. 21:1422–30
    [Google Scholar]
86. Maniscalco B, Odegaard B, Grimaldi P, Cho SH, Basso MA et al. 2021. Tuned inhibition in perceptual decision-making circuits can explain seemingly suboptimal confidence behavior. PLOS Comput. Biol. 17:3e1008779
    [Google Scholar]
87. Marcke HV, Denmat PL, Verguts T, Desender K. 2022. Manipulating prior beliefs causally induces under- and overconfidence. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.03.01.482511
88. Masset P, Ott T, Lak A, Hirokawa J, Kepecs A. 2020. Behavior- and modality-general representation of confidence in orbitofrontal cortex. Cell 182:1112–26.e18
    [Google Scholar]
89. Mazancieux A, Fleming SM, Souchay C, Moulin CJA. 2020. Is there a G factor for metacognition? Correlations in retrospective metacognitive sensitivity across tasks. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 149:91788–99
    [Google Scholar]
90. Mazor M, Maimon-Mor RO, Charles L, Fleming SM 2023. Paradoxical evidence weighting in confidence judgments for detection and discrimination. Attent. Percept. Psychophys 85:2356–85
    [Google Scholar]
91. McCurdy LY, Maniscalco B, Metcalfe J, Liu KY, de Lange FP, Lau HC. 2013. Anatomical coupling between distinct metacognitive systems for memory and visual perception. J. Neurosci. 33:51897–906
    [Google Scholar]
92. Metcalfe J, Shimamura AP, eds. 1994. Metacognition: Knowing About Knowing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
93. Meyniel F, Sigman M, Mainen ZF. 2015. Confidence as Bayesian probability: from neural origins to behavior. Neuron 88:178–92
    [Google Scholar]
94. Middlebrooks PG, Sommer MA. 2012. Neuronal correlates of metacognition in primate frontal cortex. Neuron 75:3517–30
    [Google Scholar]
95. Miller EK, Cohen JD. 2001. An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 24:167–202
    [Google Scholar]
96. Miyamoto K, Osada T, Setsuie R, Takeda M, Tamura K et al. 2017. Causal neural network of metamemory for retrospection in primates. Science 355:6321188–93
    [Google Scholar]
97. Miyamoto K, Setsuie R, Osada T, Miyashita Y. 2018. Reversible silencing of the frontopolar cortex selectively impairs metacognitive judgment on non-experience in primates. Neuron 97:4980–89.e6
    [Google Scholar]
98. Miyoshi K, Lau H. 2020. A decision-congruent heuristic gives superior metacognitive sensitivity under realistic variance assumptions. Psychol. Rev. 127:5655–71
    [Google Scholar]
99. Morales J, Lau H, Fleming SM. 2018. Domain-general and domain-specific patterns of activity supporting metacognition in human prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 38:143534–46
    [Google Scholar]
100. Morrison J. 2016. Perceptual confidence. Anal. Philos. 57:115–48
     [Google Scholar]
101. Murphy PR, Robertson IH, Harty S, O'Connell RG. 2015. Neural evidence accumulation persists after choice to inform metacognitive judgments. eLife 4:3478
     [Google Scholar]
102. Nelson TO, Narens L. 1990. Metamemory: a theoretical framework and new findings. Psychol. Learn. Motiv. Adv. Res. Theory 26:125–73
     [Google Scholar]
103. Nicholson T, Williams DM, Lind SE, Grainger C, Carruthers P. 2021. Linking metacognition and mindreading: evidence from autism and dual-task investigations. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 150:2206–20
     [Google Scholar]
104. Nieuwenhuis S, Ridderinkhof KR, Blom J, Band GP, Kok A. 2001. Error-related brain potentials are differentially related to awareness of response errors: evidence from an antisaccade task. Psychophysiology 38:5752–60
     [Google Scholar]
105. Norman DA, Shallice T 1986. Attention to action: willed and automatic control of behaviour. Consciousness and Self-Regulation RJ Davidson, GE Schwartz, D Shapiro 1–18. New York: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
106. Pannu J, Kaszniak A. 2005. Metamemory experiments in neurological populations: a review. Neuropsychol. Rev. 15:3105–30
     [Google Scholar]
107. Pereira M, Faivre N, Iturrate I, Wirthlin M, Serafini L et al. 2020. Disentangling the origins of confidence in speeded perceptual judgments through multimodal imaging. PNAS 117:158382–90
     [Google Scholar]
108. Pleskac TJ, Busemeyer JR. 2010. Two-stage dynamic signal detection: a theory of choice, decision time, and confidence. Psychol. Rev. 117:3864–901
     [Google Scholar]
109. Pouget A, Drugowitsch J, Kepecs A. 2016. Confidence and certainty: distinct probabilistic quantities for different goals. Nat. Neurosci. 19:3366–74
     [Google Scholar]
110. Purcell BA, Kiani R. 2016. Hierarchical decision processes that operate over distinct timescales underlie choice and changes in strategy. PNAS 113:31E4531–40
     [Google Scholar]
111. Qiu L, Su J, Ni Y, Bai Y, Zhang X et al. 2018. The neural system of metacognition accompanying decision-making in the prefrontal cortex. PLOS Biol. 16:4e2004037
     [Google Scholar]
112. Rahnev D. 2021. Visual metacognition: measures, models, and neural correlates. Am. Psychol. 76:91445–53
     [Google Scholar]
113. Rahnev D, Balsdon T, Charles L, de Gardelle V, Denison R et al. 2022. Consensus goals in the field of visual metacognition. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 17:61746–65
     [Google Scholar]
114. Rahnev D, Denison RN. 2018. Suboptimality in perceptual decision making. Behav. Brain Sci. 41:e223
     [Google Scholar]
115. Rahnev D, Desender K, Lee ALF, Adler WT, Aguilar-Lleyda D et al. 2020. The Confidence Database. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4:3317–25
     [Google Scholar]
116. Resulaj A, Kiani R, Wolpert DM, Shadlen MN. 2009. Changes of mind in decision-making. Nature 461:7261263–66
     [Google Scholar]
117. Rollwage M, Dolan RJ, Fleming SM. 2018. Metacognitive failure as a feature of those holding radical beliefs. Curr. Biol. 28:244014–21.e8
     [Google Scholar]
118. Rouault M, Dayan P, Fleming SM. 2019. Forming global estimates of self-performance from local confidence. Nat. Commun. 10:11–11
     [Google Scholar]
119. Rouault M, Fleming SM. 2020. Formation of global self-beliefs in the human brain. PNAS 117:4427268–76
     [Google Scholar]
120. Rouault M, McWilliams A, Allen MG, Fleming SM. 2018a. Human metacognition across domains: insights from individual differences and neuroimaging. Pers. Neurosci. 1:e17
     [Google Scholar]
121. Rouault M, Seow T, Gillan CM, Fleming SM. 2018b. Psychiatric symptom dimensions are associated with dissociable shifts in metacognition but not task performance. Biol. Psychiatry 84:6443–51
     [Google Scholar]
122. Rouy M, de Gardelle V, Reyes G, Sackur J, Vergnaud JC et al. 2022. Metacognitive improvement: disentangling adaptive training from experimental confounds. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 151:2083–91
     [Google Scholar]
123. Rutishauser U, Ye S, Koroma M, Tudusciuc O, Ross IB et al. 2015. Representation of retrieval confidence by single neurons in the human medial temporal lobe. Nat. Neurosci. 18:71041–50
     [Google Scholar]
124. Sanders JI, Hangya B, Kepecs A. 2016. Signatures of a statistical computation in the human sense of confidence. Neuron 90:3499–506
     [Google Scholar]
125. Sarafyazd M, Jazayeri M. 2019. Hierarchical reasoning by neural circuits in the frontal cortex. Science 364:6441eaav8911
     [Google Scholar]
126. Schulz L, Rollwage M, Dolan RJ, Fleming SM. 2020. Dogmatism manifests in lowered information search under uncertainty. PNAS 117:4931527–34
     [Google Scholar]
127. Seow TXF, Rouault M, Gillan CM, Fleming SM. 2021. How local and global metacognition shape mental health. Biol. Psychiatry 90:7436–46
     [Google Scholar]
128. Sepulveda P, Usher M, Davies N, Benson AA, Ortoleva P, De Martino B. 2020. Visual attention modulates the integration of goal-relevant evidence and not value. eLife 9:e60705
     [Google Scholar]
129. Shea N, Boldt A, Bang D, Yeung N, Heyes C, Frith CD. 2014. Supra-personal cognitive control and metacognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 18:4186–93
     [Google Scholar]
130. Shea N, Frith CD. 2019. The global workspace needs metacognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 23:7560–71
     [Google Scholar]
131. Shekhar M, Rahnev D. 2018. Distinguishing the roles of dorsolateral and anterior PFC in visual metacognition. J. Neurosci. 38:225078–87
     [Google Scholar]
132. Shekhar M, Rahnev D. 2021. Sources of metacognitive inefficiency. Trends Cogn. Sci. 25:112–23
     [Google Scholar]
133. Siedlecka M, Paulewicz B, Wierzchoń M. 2016. But I was so sure! Metacognitive judgments are less accurate given prospectively than retrospectively. Front. Psychol. 7:240218
     [Google Scholar]
134. Spence ML, Dux PE, Arnold DH. 2016. Computations underlying confidence in visual perception. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 42:5671–82
     [Google Scholar]
135. Trommershauser J, Maloney LT, Landy MS. 2008. Decision making, movement planning and statistical decision theory. Trends Cogn. Sci. 12:8291–97
     [Google Scholar]
136. Tsujimoto S, Genovesio A, Wise SP. 2010. Evaluating self-generated decisions in frontal pole cortex of monkeys. Nat. Neurosci. 13:1120–26
     [Google Scholar]
137. Urai AE, Braun A, Donner TH. 2017. Pupil-linked arousal is driven by decision uncertainty and alters serial choice bias. Nat. Commun. 8:14637
     [Google Scholar]
138. Vaccaro AG, Fleming SM. 2018. Thinking about thinking: a coordinate-based meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of metacognitive judgements. Brain Neurosci. Adv. 2:2398212818810591
     [Google Scholar]
139. van den Berg R, Anandalingam K, Zylberberg A, Kiani R, Shadlen MN, Wolpert DM. 2016a. A common mechanism underlies changes of mind about decisions and confidence. eLife 5:e12192
     [Google Scholar]
140. van den Berg R, Zylberberg A, Kiani R, Shadlen MN, Wolpert DM. 2016b. Confidence is the bridge between multi-stage decisions. Curr. Biol. 26:233157–68
     [Google Scholar]
141. van der Plas E, Zhang S, Dong K, Bang D, Li J et al. 2022. Identifying cultural differences in metacognition. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 151:123268–80
     [Google Scholar]
142. Walker EY, Pohl S, Denison RN, Barack DL, Lee J et al. 2023. Studying the neural representations of uncertainty. Nat. Neurosci https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-023-01444-y
     [Crossref]
143. Webb TW, Miyoshi K, So TY, Rajananda S, Lau H. 2023. Natural statistics support a rational account of confidence biases. Nat. Commun. 14:3992
     [Google Scholar]
144. West RK, Harrison WJ, Matthews N, Mattingley JB, Sewell DK. 2023. Modality independent or modality specific? Common computations underlie confidence judgements in visual and auditory decisions. PLOS Comput. Biol. 19:7e1011245
     [Google Scholar]
145. Wilimzig C, Tsuchiya N, Fahle M, Einhäuser W, Koch C. 2008. Spatial attention increases performance but not subjective confidence in a discrimination task. J. Vis. 8:57.1–10
     [Google Scholar]
146. Winter CJ, Peters MAK. 2022. Variance misperception under skewed empirical noise statistics explains overconfidence in the visual periphery. Attent. Percept. Psychophys. 84:1161–78
     [Google Scholar]
147. Wittmann MK, Kolling N, Faber NS, Scholl J, Nelissen N, Rushworth MFS. 2016. Self-other mergence in the frontal cortex during cooperation and competition. Neuron 91:2482–93
     [Google Scholar]
148. Wittmann MK, Trudel N, Trier HA, Klein-Flügge MC, Sel A et al. 2021. Causal manipulation of self-other mergence in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. Neuron 109:142353–61.e11
     [Google Scholar]
149. Wokke ME, Achoui D, Cleeremans A. 2020. Action information contributes to metacognitive decision-making. Sci. Rep. 10:13632
     [Google Scholar]
150. Wright ND, Edwards T, Fleming SM, Dolan RJ. 2012. Testosterone induces off-line perceptual learning. Psychopharmacology 224:3451–57
     [Google Scholar]
151. Xue K, Shekhar M, Rahnev D. 2021. Examining the robustness of the relationship between metacognitive efficiency and metacognitive bias. Conscious. Cogn. 95:103196
     [Google Scholar]
152. Yates JF, Lee JW, Shinotsuka H, Patalano AL, Sieck WR. 1998. Cross-cultural variations in probability judgment accuracy: beyond general knowledge overconfidence?. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 74:289–117
     [Google Scholar]
153. Ye Q, Zou F, Lau H, Hu Y, Kwok SC. 2018. Causal evidence for mnemonic metacognition in human precuneus. J. Neurosci. 38:286379–87
     [Google Scholar]
154. Yeon J, Shekhar M, Rahnev D. 2020. Overlapping and unique neural circuits are activated during perceptual decision making and confidence. Sci. Rep. 10:120761
     [Google Scholar]
155. Yeung N, Summerfield C. 2012. Metacognition in human decision-making: confidence and error monitoring. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 367:15941310–21
     [Google Scholar]
156. Yu A, Dayan P. 2005. Uncertainty, neuromodulation, and attention. Neuron 46:4681–92
     [Google Scholar]
157. Zheng Y, Wang D, Ye Q, Zou F, Li Y, Kwok SC. 2021. Diffusion property and functional connectivity of superior longitudinal fasciculus underpin human metacognition. Neuropsychologia 156:107847
     [Google Scholar]
158. Zylberberg A, Barttfeld P, Sigman M. 2012. The construction of confidence in a perceptual decision. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 6:79
     [Google Scholar]
159. Zylberberg A, Roelfsema PR, Sigman M. 2014. Variance misperception explains illusions of confidence in simple perceptual decisions. Conscious. Cogn. 27:246–53
     [Google Scholar]