1932

Abstract

Throughout my career, I have pursued three theories related to intergroup prejudice—each with a different mentor. Each theory and its supporting research help us to understand prejudice and ways to ameliorate the problem. This autobiographical review article summarizes some of the advances in these three areas during the past six decades. For authoritarianism, the article advocates removing political content from its measurement, linking it with threat and dismissive-avoidant attachment, and studying how authoritarians avoid intergroup contact. Increased work on relative deprivation made possible an extensive meta-analysis that shows the theory, when appropriately measured, has far broader effects than previously thought. Increased research attention to intergroup contact similarly made possible a meta-analysis that established the pervasive effectiveness of intergroup contact to reduce prejudice under a wide range of conditions. The article closes by demonstrating how the three theories relate to each other and contribute to our understanding of prejudice and its reduction.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033327
2016-01-04
2024-12-07
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/67/1/annurev-psych-122414-033327.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033327&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Ackerman NW, Jahoda M. 1950. Anti-Semitism and Emotional Disorder New York: Harper & Row [Google Scholar]
  2. Adorno TW, Frenkel-Brunswik E, Levinson DJ, Sanford RN. 1950. The Authoritarian Personality New York: Harper & Row [Google Scholar]
  3. Ainsworth MDS, Blehar MC, Waters E, Wall S. 1978. Patterns of Attachment Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum [Google Scholar]
  4. Albert S. 1977. Temporal comparison theory. Psychol. Rev. 84:485–503 [Google Scholar]
  5. Allport GW. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Hardcover, ed.. [Google Scholar]
  6. Allport GW. 1958. The Nature of Prejudice Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor. Paperback, ed.. [Google Scholar]
  7. Altemeyer B. 1981. Right-Wing Authoritarianism Winnipeg, Can: Univ. Manitoba Press [Google Scholar]
  8. Altemeyer B. 1996. The Authoritarian Specter Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  9. Baier D, Hadjar A, Boehnke K. 2016. Authoritarianism in an everyday context: dispositional, situational, or what?. See Funke et al. 2016. In press
  10. Baker PE. 1934. Negro-White Adjustment New York: Assoc. Press [Google Scholar]
  11. Barlow FK, Paolini S, Pedersen A, Hornsey MJ, Radke HRM. et al. 2012. The contact caveat: Negative contact predicts increased prejudice more than positive contact predicts reduced prejudice. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 38:1629–43 [Google Scholar]
  12. Bartholomew K. 1990. Avoidance of intimacy. J. Soc. Pers. Relatsh. 7:147–78 [Google Scholar]
  13. Bartholomew K, Horowitz LM. 1991. Attachment styles among young adults. A test of a four-category model. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 61:226–244 [Google Scholar]
  14. Binder J, Zagefka H, Brown R, Funke F, Kessler T. et al. 2009. Does contact reduce prejudice or does prejudice reduce contact? A longitudinal test of the contact hypothesis amongst majority and minority groups in three European countries. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 96:843–56 [Google Scholar]
  15. Blalock HM. 1967. Per cent non-white and discrimination in the South. Am. Sociol. Rev. 22:677–82 [Google Scholar]
  16. Brown R, Hewstone M. 2005. An integrative theory of intergroup contact. Adv. Exper. Soc. Psychol. 37:255–343 [Google Scholar]
  17. Cantril H. 1965. The Pattern of Human Concerns New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  18. Christ O, Hewstone M, Tausch N, Wagner U, Voci A. et al. 2010. Direct contact as a moderator of extended contact effects: cross-sectional and longitudinal impact on outgroup attitudes, behavioral intentions, and attitude certainty. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 36:1723–38 [Google Scholar]
  19. Christ O, Schmid K, Lolliot S, Swart H, Stolle D. et al. 2014. Contextual effect of positive intergroup contact on outgroup prejudice. PNAS 111:113996–4000 [Google Scholar]
  20. Christ O, Ullrich J, Wagner U. 2008. The joint effects of positive and negative intergroup contact on attitudes and attitude strength Paper presented at annu. meet. Eur. Assoc. Exper. Soc. Psychol., Opatija, Croatia [Google Scholar]
  21. Cook SW. 1984. Cooperative interaction in multiethnic contexts. Groups in Contact N Miller, MB Brewer 155–85 Orlando, FL: Academic316 [Google Scholar]
  22. Crosby F. 1976. A model of egotistical deprivation. Psychol. Rev. 83:85–113 [Google Scholar]
  23. Cuijpers P, van Straten A, Bohlmeijer E, Hollon S, Andersson G. 2010. The effects of psychotherapy for adult depression are overestimated. Psychol. Med. 40:211–23 [Google Scholar]
  24. Davies K, Tropp L, Aron A, Pettigrew TF, Wright SC. 2011. Cross-group friendships and intergroup attitudes: a meta-analytic review. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 15:332–51 [Google Scholar]
  25. Davis JA. 1959. A formal interpretation of the theory of relative deprivation. Sociometry 22:280–96 [Google Scholar]
  26. Duckitt J. 1989. Authoritarianism and group identification. Polit. Psychol. 10:63–84 [Google Scholar]
  27. Ekehammar B, Akrami N, Gylje M, Zakrisson I. 2004. What matters most to prejudice: Big Five personality, social dominance orientation, or right-wing authoritarianism?. Eur. J. Personal. 18:463–82 [Google Scholar]
  28. Eller A, Abrams D. 2004. Come together: longitudinal comparisons of Pettigrew's reformulated intergroup contact model and the common ingroup identity model in Anglo-French and Mexican-American contexts. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 34:229–56 [Google Scholar]
  29. Fraley RC, Waller NG. 1998. Adult attachment patterns. Attachment Theory and Close Relationships JA Simpson, WS Rhodes 77–114 New York: Guilford [Google Scholar]
  30. Fujioka Y. 1999. Television portrayals and African-American stereotypes. J. Mass Commun. Q. 76:52–75 [Google Scholar]
  31. Funke F, Petzel T, Cohrs C, Duckitt J. 2016. Perspectives on Authoritarianism Berlin, Ger: Verlag Sozialwissenschaften. In press [Google Scholar]
  32. Gómez A, Huici C. 2008. Vicarious intergroup contact and role of authorities in prejudice reduction. Span. J. Psychol. 11:103–14 [Google Scholar]
  33. Gormley B, Lopez FG. 2010. Authoritarian and homophobic attitudes: gender and adult attachment style differences. J. Homosex. 57:525–38 [Google Scholar]
  34. Graves SB. 1999. Television and prejudice reduction: When does television as a vicarious experience make a difference?. J. Soc. Issues 55:707–27 [Google Scholar]
  35. Gurr TR. 1970. Why Men Rebel Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  36. Harwood J, Paolini S, Joyce N, Rubin M, Arroyo A. 2014. Secondary transfer effects from imagined contact. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 50:180–89 [Google Scholar]
  37. Hassen MK. 1987. Parental behavior, authoritarianism and prejudice. Manas 34:41–50 [Google Scholar]
  38. Heitmeyer W. 2002. Deutsche Zustände Folge 1 [The German Situation. Part 1] Frankfurt am Main, Ger: Suhrkamp Verlag303 [Google Scholar]
  39. Heitmeyer W. 2003. Deutsche Zustände Folge 2 [The German Situation. Part 2.] Frankfurt am Main, Ger: Suhrkamp Verlag315 [Google Scholar]
  40. Heitmeyer W. 2005. Deutsche Zustände Folge 3 [The German Situation. Part 3] Frankfurt am Main, Ger: Suhrkamp Verlag315 [Google Scholar]
  41. Herek GM, Capitanio JP. 1997. AIDS stigma and contact with persons with AIDS: effects of direct and vicarious contact. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 27:1–36 [Google Scholar]
  42. Hodson G, Harry H, Mitchell A. 2009. Independent benefits of contact and friendship on attitudes toward homosexuals among authoritarians and highly identified heterosexuals. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 35:509–25 [Google Scholar]
  43. Hodson G, Hewstone M. 2013. Advances in Intergroup Contact New York: Psychol. Press [Google Scholar]
  44. Hopf C. 1992. Authoritarians and their families: qualitative studies on the origins of authoritarian dispositions. Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today WF Stone, G Lederer, R Christie 119–43 New York: Springer-Verlag277 [Google Scholar]
  45. Hopf C. 1993. Rechtsextremismus und Beziehungserfahrungen [Right-wing extremism and relational experiences]. Z. Soziol. 22:449–63 [Google Scholar]
  46. Jost JT, Banaji MR, Nosek B. 2004. A decade of system justification theory. Polit. Psychol. 25:881–919 [Google Scholar]
  47. Kretch D, Crutchfield RS. 1948. Theory and Problems of Social Psychology New York: McGraw-Hill [Google Scholar]
  48. Levin S, Van Laar C, Sidanius J. 2003. The effects of ingroup and outgroup friendships on ethnic attitudes in college. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 6:76–92 [Google Scholar]
  49. Lolliot S, Schmid K, Hewstone M, Al Ramiah A, Tausch N, Swart H. 2013. Generalized effects of intergroup contact: the secondary transfer effect. See Hodson & Hewstone 2013, pp. 81–112
  50. Ludeke SG, Krueger RF. 2013. Authoritarianism as a personality trait: evidence from a longitudinal behavior genetic study. Personal. Individ. Differ. 55:480–84 [Google Scholar]
  51. Main M, Kaplan N, Cassidy J. 1985. Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 50:6–104 [Google Scholar]
  52. Mark MM, Folger R. 1984. Responses to relative deprivation. Rev. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 5:182–218 [Google Scholar]
  53. Martin J. 1986. The tolerance of injustice. See Olson et al. 1986 217–42
  54. McCourt K, Bouchard TJ Jr, Lykken DT, Tellegen A, Keyes M. 1999. Authoritarianism revisited: genetic and environmental influences examined in twins reared apart and together. Personal. Individ. Differ. 27:985–1014 [Google Scholar]
  55. Merton R. 1957. Social Theory and Social Structure Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Rev., ed.. [Google Scholar]
  56. Middleton R. 1976. Regional differences in prejudice. Am. Sociol. Rev. 41:94–117 [Google Scholar]
  57. Mikulincer M, Shaver PR. 2007. Attachment in Adulthood New York: Guilford [Google Scholar]
  58. Mussen PH. 1950. Some personality and social factors related to changes in children's attitudes toward Negroes. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol. 45:423–41 [Google Scholar]
  59. Myrdal G. 1944. An American Dilemma New York: Harper & Row [Google Scholar]
  60. Nichols LT. 1998. Social relations undone: disciplinary divergence and departmental politics at Harvard, 1946–1970. Am. Sociol. 29:83–107 [Google Scholar]
  61. Oesterreich D. 2005. Flight into security: a new approach and measure of the authoritarian personality. Polit. Psychol. 26:275–97 [Google Scholar]
  62. Olson J, Herman CP, Zanna MP. 1986. Relative Deprivation and Social Comparison. The Ontario Symposium 4 Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum [Google Scholar]
  63. Osborne D, Sibley CG. 2013. Through rose-colored glasses: System-justifying beliefs dampen the effects of relative deprivation on well-being and political mobilization. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 39:991–1004 [Google Scholar]
  64. Paolini S, Harwood J, Rubin M, Husnu S, Joyce N. et al. 2014. Positive and extensive intergroup contact in the past buffers against the disproportionate impact of negative contact in the present. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 44:548–62 [Google Scholar]
  65. Pettigrew TF. 1957. Demographic correlates of border-state desegregation. Am. Soc. Rev. 22:683–89 [Google Scholar]
  66. Pettigrew TF. 1958. Personality and sociocultural factors in intergroup attitudes: a cross-national comparison. J. Confl. Resolut. 2:29–42 [Google Scholar]
  67. Pettigrew TF. 1959. Regional differences in anti-Negro prejudice. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol. 59:28–36 [Google Scholar]
  68. Pettigrew TF. 1964. A Profile of the Negro American New York: Van Nostrand [Google Scholar]
  69. Pettigrew TF. 1967. Social evaluation theory: convergences and applications. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1967 D Levine 241–311 Lincoln: Univ. Neb. Press [Google Scholar]
  70. Pettigrew TF. 1969. Gordon Willard Allport, 1897–1967. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 12:1–5 [Google Scholar]
  71. Pettigrew TF. 1971. Racially Separate or Together? New York: McGraw-Hill [Google Scholar]
  72. Pettigrew TF. 1978. Three issues in ethnicity: boundaries, deprivations, and perceptions. Major Social Problems M Yinger, R Cutler 25–49 New York: Basic Books [Google Scholar]
  73. Pettigrew TF. 1979. Tensions between the law and social science. Schools and the Courts: Desegregation I23–44 Eugene: Univ. OR ERIC Clgh. Educ. Manag. [Google Scholar]
  74. Pettigrew TF. 1986. The contact hypothesis revisited. Contact and Conflict in Intergroup Encounters M Hewstone, R Brown 169–95 Oxford, UK: Blackwell [Google Scholar]
  75. Pettigrew TF. 1990. A bold stroke for personality a half-century ago. Contemp. Psychol. 35:533–36 [Google Scholar]
  76. Pettigrew TF. 1991a. Normative theory in intergroup relations. Psychol. Dev. Soc. 3:3–16 [Google Scholar]
  77. Pettigrew TF. 1991b. Toward unity and bold theory: Popperian suggestions for two persistent problems of social psychology. The Future of Social Psychology C Stephan, W Stephan, TF Pettigrew 13–27 New York: Springer-Verlag [Google Scholar]
  78. Pettigrew TF. 1996. How to Think Like a Social Scientist New York: HarperCollins [Google Scholar]
  79. Pettigrew TF. 1997. Personality and social structure: social psychological contributions. Handbook Personality Psychology R Hogan, JA Johnson, SR Briggs 417–38 San Diego, CA: Academic987 [Google Scholar]
  80. Pettigrew TF. 1998. Intergroup contact theory. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 49:65–85 [Google Scholar]
  81. Pettigrew TF. 1999. Gordon Willard Allport: a tribute. J. Soc. Issues 55:3415–27 [Google Scholar]
  82. Pettigrew TF. 2000. Placing authoritarianism in social context. Polit. Groups Individ. 8:5–20 [Google Scholar]
  83. Pettigrew TF. 2006. Commentary: the advantages of multi-level approaches. J. Soc. Issues 62:615–20 [Google Scholar]
  84. Pettigrew TF. 2009. Secondary transfer effect of contact: Do intergroup contact effects generalize to non-contacted outgroups?. Soc. Psychol. 40:55–65 [Google Scholar]
  85. Pettigrew TF. 2015a. Allport, Gordon W (1897–1967). International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences JD Wright 562–65 Oxford, UK: Elsevier, 2nd ed.. [Google Scholar]
  86. Pettigrew TF. 2015b. Samuel Stouffer and relative deprivation. Soc. Psychol. Q. 78:7–24 [Google Scholar]
  87. Pettigrew TF. 2016. The indestructible theory. See Funke et al. 2016. In press
  88. Pettigrew TF, Campbell EQ. 1960. Faubus and segregation: an analysis of Arkansas voting. Public Opin. Q. 24:436–47 [Google Scholar]
  89. Pettigrew TF, Cramer MR. 1959. The demography of desegregation. J. Soc. Issues 15:61–71 [Google Scholar]
  90. Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR. 2000. Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent meta-analytic findings. Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination: Social Psychological Perspectives S Oskamp 93–114 Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum [Google Scholar]
  91. Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR. 2006. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 90:1–33 [Google Scholar]
  92. Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR. 2008. How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice?. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 38:922–34 [Google Scholar]
  93. Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR. 2011. When Groups Meet: The Dynamics of Intergroup Contact New York: Psychol. Press [Google Scholar]
  94. Pettigrew TF, Wagner U, Christ O. 2007. Who opposes immigration?. Du Bois Rev. 4:19–39 [Google Scholar]
  95. Pettigrew TF, Wagner U, Christ O. 2010. Population ratios and prejudice: modeling both contact and threat effects. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 36:635–50 [Google Scholar]
  96. Putnam R. 2007. E pluribus unum: diversity and community in the 21st century. Scand. Pol. Stud. 30:137–74 [Google Scholar]
  97. Reynolds KJ, Turner JC, Haslam SA, Ryan MK. 2001. The role of personality and group factors in explaining prejudice. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 37:427–34 [Google Scholar]
  98. Richard FD, Bond CF Jr, Stokes-Zoota JJ. 2003. One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 7:331–63 [Google Scholar]
  99. Robinson WS. 1950. Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals. Am. Sociol. Rev. 15:351–57 [Google Scholar]
  100. Roccato M, Ricolfi L. 2005. On the correlation between right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation. Basic Appl. Soc. Psychol. 27:187–200 [Google Scholar]
  101. Rothwell JT. 2010. Trust in diverse, integrated cities: a revisionist perspective. Brookings Inst. Work. Pap. Ser. Washington, DC: Brookings Inst. [Google Scholar]
  102. Rothwell JT. 2012. The effects of racial segregation on trust and volunteering in U.S. cities. J. Urban Stud. 49:2109–36 [Google Scholar]
  103. Runciman WG. 1966. Relative Deprivation and Social Justice London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul [Google Scholar]
  104. Sales S. 1973. Threat as a factor in authoritarianism. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 28:44–57 [Google Scholar]
  105. Schiappa E, Gregg P, Hewes DE. 2005. The parasocial contact hypothesis. Commun. Monogr. 72:92–115 [Google Scholar]
  106. Schiappa E, Gregg P, Hewes DE. 2006. Can one TV show make a difference?. Will & Grace and the parasocial contact hypothesis J. Homosex. 51:15–37 [Google Scholar]
  107. Schmid K, Hewstone M, Kuepper B, Zick A, Wagner U. 2012. Secondary transfer effects of intergroup contact. Soc. Psychol. Q. 75:28–51 [Google Scholar]
  108. Sidanius J, Levin S, Van Laar C, Sears DO. 2008. The Diversity Challenge: Social Identity and Intergroup Relations on the College Campus New York: Russell Sage Found448 [Google Scholar]
  109. Sidanius J, Pratto F. 1999. Social Dominance Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press403 [Google Scholar]
  110. Smith H, Pettigrew TF, Pippin G, Bialosiewicz S. 2012. Relative deprivation: a theoretical and meta-analytic critique. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 16:203–32 [Google Scholar]
  111. Stellmacher J, Petzel T. 2005. Authoritarianism as a group phenomenon. Polit. Psychol. 26:245–74 [Google Scholar]
  112. Stouffer SA. 1955. Communism, Conformity and Civil Liberties New York: Doubleday [Google Scholar]
  113. Stouffer SA. 1962. Social Research to Test Ideas New York: Free Press [Google Scholar]
  114. Stouffer SA, Suchman EA, DeVinney LC, Starr SA, Williams RM. 1949. The American Soldier 1 Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  115. Strumpel B. 1976. Economic Means for Human Needs Ann Arbor, MI: Inst. Soc. Res. [Google Scholar]
  116. Suls JM, Miller RL. 1977. Social Comparison Processes New York: Halsted Press [Google Scholar]
  117. Tausch N, Hewstone M, Kenworthy JB, Psaltis C, Schmid K. et al. 2010. Secondary transfer effects of intergroup contact. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 99:282–302 [Google Scholar]
  118. Thornhill R, Fincher CL. 2007. What is the relevance of attachment and life history to political values?. Evol. Human Behav. 28:215–22 [Google Scholar]
  119. Tropp LR, Pettigrew TF. 2005. Relationships between intergroup contact and prejudice among minority and majority status groups. Psychol. Sci. 16:651–57 [Google Scholar]
  120. Turner RN, Crisp RJ, Lambert E. 2007. Imagining intergroup contact can improve intergroup attitudes. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 10:427–41 [Google Scholar]
  121. Tyler TR, Smith HJ. 1998. Social justice and social movements. Handbook of Social Psychology 2 D Gilbert, ST Fiske, G Lindzey 595–629 New York: McGraw Hill, 4th.1,085 [Google Scholar]
  122. Uslaner EM. 2012. Segregation and Mistrust: Diversity, Isolation, and Social Cohesion New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.284 [Google Scholar]
  123. Van IJzendoorn MH. 1997. Attachment, emergent morality, and aggression. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 21:703–27 [Google Scholar]
  124. Vezzali L, Giovannini D. 2012. Secondary transfer effect of intergroup contact. J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol. 22:125–44 [Google Scholar]
  125. Vezzali L, Stathi S, Giovannini D. 2012. Indirect contact through book reading. Psychol. Schools 49:148–62 [Google Scholar]
  126. Vorauer JD, Main KJ, O'Connell GB. 1998. How do individuals expect to be viewed by members of lower status groups?. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 75:917–37 [Google Scholar]
  127. Wagner U, Christ O, Pettigrew TF, Stellmacher J, Wolf H. 2006. Prejudice and minority proportion: contact instead of threat effects. Soc. Psychol. Q. 69:380–90 [Google Scholar]
  128. Wagner U, van Dick R, Pettigrew TF, Christ O. 2003. Ethnic prejudice in East and West Germany: the explanatory power of intergroup contact. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 6:22–36 [Google Scholar]
  129. Walker I, Pettigrew TF. 1984. Relative deprivation theory: an overview and conceptual critique. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 23:301–10 [Google Scholar]
  130. Walker I, Smith HJ. 2002. Relative Deprivation New York: Cambridge Univ. Press390 [Google Scholar]
  131. Weber C, Federico CM. 2007. Interpersonal attachment and patterns of ideological belief. Polit. Psychol. 28:389–416 [Google Scholar]
  132. Williams RM Jr. 1947. The Reduction of Intergroup Tensions New York: Soc. Sci. Res. Counc153 [Google Scholar]
  133. Wright SC, Aron A, McLaughlin-Volpe T, Ropp SA. 1997. The extended contact effect. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 73:73–90 [Google Scholar]
  134. Zajonc RB. 1968. Attitudinal effects of exposure. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 9:1–27 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033327
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033327
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error