1932

Abstract

The global dimensions of diasporic politics and state response have generated a large, interdisciplinary literature. Yet, scholars struggle to find the most productive conceptual tools, as one literature, at point of origin, studies emigration and the other, at point of destination, studies immigration. The transnational turn in the social sciences four decades ago propelled scholars to study cross-border political mobilization by viewing immigration and emigration as two sides of the same coin. This article provides a guide to this scholarship. We show how the political nature of cross-border movements creates and circumscribes conditions for diasporic political mobilization. We then identify the different types of cross-border political activities and the modalities of corresponding home state policies. We conclude by reflecting how the world today has changed since the geopolitical moment in which the transnational turn was born and what these changes mean for studying immigrant and emigrant cross-border politics.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-121720
2023-07-31
2024-04-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/soc/49/1/annurev-soc-030420-121720.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-121720&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Adamson FB. 2012. Constructing the diaspora: diaspora identity politics and transnational social movements. Politics From Afar: Transnational Diasporas and Networks T Lyons, P Mandaville 25–42. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Adamson FB. 2020. Non-state authoritarianism and diaspora politics. Glob. Netw. 20:150–69
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Adamson FB, Demetriou M. 2007. Remapping the boundaries of ‘state’ and ‘national identity’: incorporating diasporas into IR theorizing. Eur. J. Int. Relat. 13:489–526
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Adamson FB, Tsourapas G. 2020. At home and abroad: coercion-by-proxy as a tool of transnational repression Spec. Rep., Freedom House Washington, DC: https://freedomhouse.org/report/special-report/2020/home-and-abroad-coercion-proxy-tool-transnational-repression/
  5. Alonso DA. 2018. From Here and There: Diaspora Policies, Integration, and Social Rights Beyond Borders Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  6. ACLU (Am. Civ. Lib. Union) 2009. Blocking faith, freezing charity: chilling Muslim charitable giving in the “war on terrorism financing Rep. ACLU New York: https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/blockingfaith.pdf
  7. Arar R, FitzGerald D. 2022. The Refugee System: A Sociological Approach Cambridge, UK: Polity
  8. Basch L, Schiller NG, Blanc CS. 1994. Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorialized Nation-States New York: Gordon and Breach
  9. Betts A, Jones W. 2016. Mobilising the Diaspora Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  10. Butler KD. 2001. Defining diaspora: refining a discourse. Diaspora J. Transnatl. Stud. 10:189–219
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Brubaker R. 2006. Ethnicity Without Groups Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  12. Caramani D, Grotz F. 2015. Beyond citizenship and residence? Exploring the extension of voting rights in the age of globalization. Democratization 22:799–819
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Chaudhary AR. 2018. Voting here and there: political integration and transnational political engagement among immigrants in Europe. Glob. Netw. 18:3437–60
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Chaudhary AR. 2021. Ascriptive organizational stigma and the constraining of Pakistani immigrant organizations. Int. Migr. Rev. 55:84–107
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Chubb A. 2023. The securitization of ‘Chinese influence’ in Australia. J. Contemp. China 32:17–34
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Ciornei I, Østergaard-Nielsen E. 2020. Transnational turnout. Determinants of emigrant voting in home country elections. Political Geogr. 78:102145
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Cohen R. 2008. Global Diasporas: An Introduction London: Routledge. , 2nd ed..
  18. Délano A. 2014. The diffusion of diaspora engagement policies: a Latin American agenda. Political Geogr. 41:90–100
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Deng Y, O'Brien KJ. 2013. Relational repression in China: using social ties to demobilize protestors. China Q. 215:533–52
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Deutschmann E. 2022. Mapping the Transnational World: How We Move and Communicate Across Borders and Why It Matters Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  21. DeWind J, Segura R, eds. 2014. Diaspora Lobbies and the US Government: Convergence and Divergence in Making Foreign Policy New York: NYU Press
  22. Dinges J. 2004. The Condor Years: How Pinochet and His Allies Brought Terrorism to Three Continents New York: New Press
  23. Dufoix S. 2003. Diasporas Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  24. Dufoix S. 2016. The Dispersion: A History of the Word Diaspora Leiden: Brill
  25. Dukalskis A. 2021. Making the World Safe for Dictatorship Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  26. Duquette-Rury L. 2020. Exit and Voice: The Paradox of Cross-Border Politics in Mexico Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  27. Durand J. 2004. From traitors to heroes: 100 years of Mexican migration policies. Migration Information Source March 1
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Eckstein S. 2009. The Immigrant Divide: How Cuban Americans Changed the U.S. and Their Homelands London: Routledge
  29. Englert B. 2018. Looking through two lenses: reflections on transnational and translocal dimensions in Marseille-based popular music relating to the Comoros. Identities 25:5542–57
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Faist T. 2010. Diaspora and transnationalism: what kind of dance partners?. Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods R Bauböck, T Faist 9–34. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Feyissa D. 2012. The transnational politics of the Ethiopian Muslim diaspora. Ethn. Racial Stud. 35:1893–913
    [Google Scholar]
  32. FitzGerald D. 2016. 150 years of transborder politics: Mexico and Mexicans abroad. A Century of Transnationalism: Immigrants and Their Homeland Connections NL Green, R Waldinger 106–31. Champaign: Univ. Ill. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Freedom House 2021. Defending democracy in exile: policy responses to transnational repression Rep., Freedom House Washington, DC: https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2022-05/Complete_TransnationalRepressionReport2022_NEW_0.pdf
  34. Gabaccia D. 2000. Italy's Many Diasporas London: UCL Press
  35. Gallie WB. 1956. Essentially contested concepts. Proc. Aristotelian Soc. 56:167–98
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Gamlen A. 2019. Human Geopolitics: States, Emigrants, and the Rise of Diaspora Institutions Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  37. Glasius M. 2018. The extraterritorial gap. Political Geogr. 64:95–97
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Goodkind D. 2019. The Chinese diaspora: historical legacies and contemporary trends Rep. US Census Bur., US Dep. Commer. Washington, DC:
  39. Green NL. 2019. The Limits of Transnationalism Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  40. Grossman J. 2019. Toward a definition of diaspora. Ethn. Racial Stud. 42:81263–82
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Hanagan M. 1999. Irish transnational social movements, deterritorialized immigrants and the state system: the last one hundred and forty years. Mobilization Int. J. 3:107–26
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Harrington M. 1980. Loyalties: dual and divided. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups S Thernstrom 676–86. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Hockenos P. 2003. Homeland Calling: Exile Patriotism and the Balkan Wars Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
  44. Hoerder D. 2010. Recent methodological and conceptual approaches to migration: comparing the globe or the North Atlantic world?. J. Am. Ethn. Hist. 29:79–84
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Hutcheson DS, Arrighi J. 2015. Keeping Pandora's (ballot) box half-shut: a comparative inquiry into the institutional limits of external voting in EU member states. Democratization 22:884–905
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Iran Hum. Rights Doc. Cent 2008. No Safe Haven: Iran's Global Assassination Campaign New Haven, CT: Iran Hum. Rights Doc. Cent.
  47. Iskander N. 2010. Creative State: Forty Years of Migration and Development Policy in Morocco and Mexico Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
  48. Junker A. 2019. Becoming Activists in Global China: Social Movements in the Chinese Diaspora Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  49. Keck ME, Sikkink K. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
  50. Kelly PW. 2018. Sovereign Emergencies: Latin America and the Making of Global Human Rights Politics Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  51. Leal DL, Lee B, McCann JA. 2012. Transnational absentee voting in the 2006 Mexican presidential election: the roots of participation. Elect. Stud. 31:540–49
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Levitt P, Glick Schiller N. 2004. Conceptualizing simultaneity: a transnational social field perspective on society. Int. Migr. Rev. 38:1002–39
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Liu J. 2022. From ‘sea turtles’ to ‘grassroots ambassadors’: the Chinese politics of outbound student migration. Int. Migr. Rev. 56:702–26
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Mann M. 1986. The Sources of Social Power, Vol. I A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D. 1760 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  55. Mann M. 1993. The Sources of Social Power, Vol. II The Rise of Classes and Nation States 1760–1914 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  56. Mann M. 2008. Infrastructural power revisited. Stud. Comp. Int. Dev. 43:355–65
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Margheritis A. 2007. State-led transnationalism and migration: reaching out to the Argentine community in Spain. Glob. Netw. 7:187–106
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Masih N. 2021. Under fire from Hindu nationalist groups, U.S.-based scholars of South Asia worry about academic freedom. The Washington Post Oct. 3. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/03/india-us-universities-hindutva/
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Massey SD, Alarcon R, Durand J, González H 1987. Return to Aztlan: The Social Process of International Migration from Western Mexico Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  60. Michaelsen M. 2018. Exit and voice in a digital age: Iran's exiled activists and the authoritarian age. Globalizations 15:2248–64
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Moss D. 2016. Transnational repression, diaspora mobilization, and the case of the Arab spring. Soc. Probl. 63:4480–98
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Moss D. 2021. The Arab Spring Abroad: Diaspora Activism Against Authoritarian Regimes Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  63. Moss DM, Michaelsen M, Kennedy G. 2022. Going after the family: transnational repression and the proxy punishment of Middle Eastern diasporas. Glob. Netw. 22:4735–51
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Nadaf AH. 2020. Digital dissent and censorship in the Kashmir conflict. Platforms, Protests, and the Challenge of Networked Democracy J Jones, M Trice 293–312. London: Palgrave Macmillan
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Nye JS Jr., Keohane RO. 1971. Transnational relations and world politics: an introduction. Int. Organ. 25:3329–49
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Ögelman N. 2003. Documenting and explaining the persistence of homeland politics among Germany's Turks. Int. Migr. Rev. 37:1163–93
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Painter J, Philo C. 1995. Spaces of citizenship: an introduction. Political Geogr. 14:2107–20
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Paul DM, Paul RA. 2008. Ethnic Lobbies and U.S. Foreign Policy Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Pennock PE. 2017. The Rise of the Arab American Left: Activists, Allies, and Their Fight Against Imperialism and Racism, 1960s–1980s Chapel Hill: Univ. N. C. Press
  70. Perez L 2014. Cuban Americans and US Cuba policy. Diaspora Lobbies and the US Government: Convergence and Divergence in Making Foreign Policy J DeWind, R Segura 132–62. New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Portes A. 2003. Conclusion: theoretical convergencies and empirical evidence in the study of immigrant transnationalism. Int. Migr. Rev. 37:3874–92
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Portes A, Guarnizo LE, Landolt P. 1999. The study of transnationalism: pitfalls and promise of an emergent research field. Ethn. Racial Stud. 22:2217–37
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Ragazzi F. 2009. Governing diasporas. Int. Political Sociol. 3:4378–97
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Ramnath M. 2005. Two revolutions: the Ghadar movement and India's radical diaspora. Radical Hist. Rev. 92:7–30
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Ramnath M. 2011. Haj to Utopia: How the Ghadar Movement Charted Global Radicalism and Attempted to Overthrow the British Empire Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  76. Risse-Kappen T. 1995. Bringing transnational relations back in: an introduction. Bringing Transnational Relations Back In T Risse-Kappen 3–36. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Rotella S. 2021. Even on U.S. campuses, China cracks down on students who speak out. ProPublica Nov. 31. https://www.propublica.org/article/even-on-us-campuses-china-cracks-down-on-students-who-speak-out
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Safran W. 1991. Diasporas in modern societies: myths of homeland and return. Diaspora J. Transnatl. Stud. 1:183–99
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Said EW. 1993. Intellectual exile: expatriates and marginals. Grand Str. 47:112–24
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Saunier Y. 2013. Transnational History New York: Palgrave
  81. Schiller NG, Basch L, Blanc CS. 1995. From immigrant to transmigrant: theorizing transnational migration. Anthropol. Q. 68:48–63
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Seidman G 2016. Naming, shaming, changing the world. The SAGE Handbook of Resistance D Courpasson, S Vallas 351–64. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Shahed K. 2019. Sikh diaspora nationalism in Canada. Stud. Ethn. Natl. 19:3325–45
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Shain Y. 1989. The Frontier of Loyalty: Political Exiles in the Age of the Nation-State Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
  85. Shain Y. 1990. The shifting character of loyalty: the dilemma of exiles in times of war. Comp. Politics 22:3323–39
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Shain Y. 1999. Marketing the American Creed Abroad: Diasporas in the U.S. and Their Homelands Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  87. Shams T. 2020. Here, There, and Elsewhere: The Making of Immigrant Identities in a Globalized World Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  88. Shams T. 2021. Homeland and heartland: reconceptualizing the “Muslim” “diaspora. .” Diaspora J. Transnatl. Stud. 21:147–63
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Singh G, Shani G. 2021. Sikh Nationalism: From a Dominant Minority to an Ethno-Religious Diaspora Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  90. Smith T. 2000. Foreign Attachments: The Power of Ethnic Groups in the Making of American Foreign Policy Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  91. Stack JF Jr. 1979. Ethnic Conflict in an International City Westport, CT: Greenwood
  92. Sznajder M, Roniger L. 2009. The Politics of Exile in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  93. Tedeschi M, Vorobeva E, Jauhiainen JS. 2022. Transnationalism: current debates and new perspectives. GeoJournal 87:603–19
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Toivanen M. 2020. Diasporas’ multiple role in peace and conflict: a review of current debates. Migr. Lett. 17:147–57
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Tölölyan K. 1996. Rethinking diaspora(s): stateless power in a transnational moment. Diaspora J. Transnatl. Stud. 5:13–36
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Van Hear N. 2012. Forcing the issue: migration crises and the uneasy dialogue between refugee research and policy. J. Refugee Stud. 25:12–24
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Vertovec S. 1997. Three meanings of “diaspora,” exemplified among South Asian religions. Diaspora J. Transnatl. Stud. 6:3277–99
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Vertovec S. 2007. Super-diversity and its implications. Ethn. Racial Stud. 30:61024–54
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Waldinger R. 2015. The Cross-Border Connection: Immigrants, Emigrants, and Their Homelands Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  100. Waldinger R, Fitzgerald D. 2004. Transnationalism in question. Am. J. Sociol. 109:51177–95
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Waldinger R, Green N 2016. Introduction. A Century of Transnationalism: Immigrants and Their Homeland Connections N Green, R Waldinger 1–31. Urbana: Univ. Ill. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Weiner M. 1986. Labour migrations and incipient diasporas. Modern Diasporas in International Politics Gabriel Sheffer 47–74. London: Croom Helm
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Whelehan N. 2014. Modern rebels? Irish Republicans in the late nineteenth century. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Terrorism C Dietze, C Verhoeven 502–18. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Wimmer A. 2008. Elementary strategies of ethnic boundary making. Ethn. Racial Stud. 31:61025–55
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Wright TC, Oñate Zúniga O. 2007. Chilean political exile. Latin Am. Perspect. 34:431–49
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Zolberg A 1999. Matters of state: theorizing immigration policy. The Handbook of International Migration: The American Experience C Hirschman, P Kasinitz, J DeWind 71–92. New York: Russell Sage Found.
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-121720
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error