1932

Abstract

We previously proposed that socioeconomic status (SES) is a fundamental cause of health inequalities and, as such, that SES inequalities in health persist over time despite radical changes in the diseases, risks, and interventions that happen to produce them at any given time. Like SES, race in the United States has an enduring connection to health and mortality. Our goals here are to evaluate whether this connection endures because systemic racism is a fundamental cause of health inequalities and, in doing so, to review a wide range of empirical data regarding racial differences in health outcomes, health risks, and health-enhancing resources such as money, knowledge, power, prestige, freedom, and beneficial social connections. We conclude that racial inequalities in health endure primarily because racism is a fundamental cause of racial differences in SES and because SES is a fundamental cause of health inequalities. In addition to these powerful connections, however, there is evidence that racism, largely via inequalities in power, prestige, freedom, neighborhood context, and health care, also has a fundamental association with health independent of SES.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112305
2015-08-14
2024-10-04
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/soc/41/1/annurev-soc-073014-112305.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112305&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aguilar LA. 2013. Inclusion is a strength: corporate America and the SEC should reflect America Public Statement. US Securities and Exchange Commission Washington, DC: http://www.sec.gov/News/PublicStmt/Detail/PublicStmt/1365171515498#.VSQPOnF-31 [Google Scholar]
  2. Antonovsky A. 1967. Social class, life expectancy, and overall mortality. Milbank Q. 45:31–73 [Google Scholar]
  3. Auchincloss A, Diez Roux A, Brown D, Erdman C, Bertoni A. 2008. Neighborhood resources for physical activity and healthy foods and their association with insulin resistance. Epidemiology 19:146–57 [Google Scholar]
  4. Ayanian JZ, Cleary PD, Weissman JS, Epstein AM. 1999. The effect of patients' preferences on racial differences in access to renal transplantation. N. Engl. J. Med. 341:1661–69 [Google Scholar]
  5. Ayanian JZ, Udvarhelyi IS, Gatsonis CA, Pasho CL, Epstein AM. 1993. Racial differences in the use of revascularization procedures after coronary angiography. JAMA 259:2642–46 [Google Scholar]
  6. Ayres I, Banaji MR, Jolls C. 2011. Race effects on eBay. SSRN http://ssrn.com/abstract=1934432 [Google Scholar]
  7. Bach PB, Cramer LD, Warren JL, Begg CB. 1999. Racial differences in the treatment of early-stage lung cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 341:1198–205 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bailey R. 1994. The other side of slavery: Black labor, cotton and textile industrialization in Great Britain and the United States. Agric. Hist. 68:35–50 [Google Scholar]
  9. Basil K, Vakil C, Sanborn M, Cole K, Kaura JSM, Kerr D. 2007. Cancer health effects of pesticides. Can. Fam. Physicians 53:1704–11 [Google Scholar]
  10. Blow CM. 2014. Rebutting Mark Cuban on bigotry. New York Times May 26 A19 [Google Scholar]
  11. BLS (US Bur. Labor Stat.) 2013. Labor force characteristics by race and ethnicity 2012. Rep. 1044, US Bur. Labor Stat., Washington, DC. http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsrace2012.pdf [Google Scholar]
  12. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P. 1995. Risk factors for PTSD-related traumatic events: a prospective analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry 152:529–35 [Google Scholar]
  13. Brown TN, Turner RJ. 2014. Racial identity and allostatic load: deepening our understanding of the deleterious impact of racism for blacks Presented at the Annual Meetings of the American Sociological Association, 106th, Aug. 16, San Francisco [Google Scholar]
  14. Carter SB, Gartner SS, Haines MR, Olmstead AL, Sutch R, Wright G. 2006. Historical Statistics of the U.S New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  15. CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.) 2004. The Burden of Chronic Diseases and Their Risk Factors Atlanta: CDC http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/11317 [Google Scholar]
  16. Chang VW, Lauderdale DS. 2009. Fundamental cause theory, technological innovation, and health disparities: the case of cholesterol in the era of statins. J. Health Soc. Behav. 50:245–60 [Google Scholar]
  17. Clark R, Anderson NB, Clark VR, Williams DR. 1999. Racism as a stressor for African Americans: a biopsychosocial model. Am. Psychol. 54:805–16 [Google Scholar]
  18. Cohen E, Roper S. 1972. Modification of interracial interaction disabilities: an application of status characteristics theory. Am. Sociol. Rev. 37:643–57 [Google Scholar]
  19. Collins C, Williams DR. 1999. Segregation and mortality: the deadly effects of racism. Sociol. Forum 14:495–523 [Google Scholar]
  20. DeNavas-Walt C, Proctor BD, Smith JC. 2012. Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the US: 2011 Washington, DC: US Census Bur http://www.census.gov/prod/2008pubs/p60-235.pdf [Google Scholar]
  21. Diez Roux AV, Auchincloss AH, Franklin TC, Raghunathan T, Barr RG. et al. 2008. Long-term exposure to ambient particulate matter and prevalence of subclinical atherosclerosis in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 167:667–75 [Google Scholar]
  22. Do DP, Reanne F, Finch BK. 2012. Does SES explain more of the black/white health gap than we thought? Revisiting our approach toward understanding racial disparities in health. Soc. Sci. Med. 74:1385–93 [Google Scholar]
  23. Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL. 1998. On the nature of contemporary prejudice: the causes, consequences, and challenges of aversive racism. Confronting Racism: The Problem and the Response J Eberhardt, ST Fiske 3–32 Newbury Park, CA: Sage [Google Scholar]
  24. Du Bois WEB 1967 (1899). The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study New York: Schocken Books [Google Scholar]
  25. Elo IT, Drevenstedt GL. 2004. Cause-specific contributions to black-white differences in male mortality from 1960 to 1995. Demogr. Res. Spec. Collect. 2:10255–76 [Google Scholar]
  26. Epstein AM, Zyanian JZ, Keogh JH, Noonan SJ, Armistead N. et al. 2000. Racial disparities in access to renal transplantation. N. Engl. J. Med. 343:1537–44 [Google Scholar]
  27. Evans G, Saegert S. 2000. Residential crowding in the context of inner city poverty. Theoretical Perspectives in Environment-Behavior Research: Underlying Assumptions, Research Problems, and Methodologies S Wapner, J Demick, T Yamamoto, H Minami 247–67 New York: Kluwer Acad. [Google Scholar]
  28. Feagin JR. 1991. The continuing significance of race: antiblack discrimination in public places. Am. Sociol. Rev. 56:101–16 [Google Scholar]
  29. Feagin JR. 2000. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations New York: Routledge [Google Scholar]
  30. Feagin JR. 2010. The White Racial Frame: Centuries of Racial Framing and Counter-Framing New York: Routledge [Google Scholar]
  31. Feagin JR. 2013. The White Racial Frame: Centuries of Racial Framing and Counter-Framing New York: Routledge, 2nd ed.. [Google Scholar]
  32. Franks P, Meunnig P, Lubetkin E, Jia H. 2006. The burden of disease associated with being African-American in the United States and the contribution of socio-economic status. Soc. Sci. Med. 62:2469–78 [Google Scholar]
  33. Freeman RB. 1996. Why do so many young American men commit crimes and what might we do about it?. J. Econ. Perspect. 10:25–42 [Google Scholar]
  34. Freese J, Lutfey K. 2011. Fundamental causality: challenges of an animating concept for medical sociology. Handbook of the Sociology of Health, Illness, and Healing BA Pescosolido, JK Martin, J McLeod, A Rogers 67–84 New York: Springer [Google Scholar]
  35. French S, Story M, Jeffrey R. 2001. Environmental influences on eating and physical activity. Annu. Rev. Public Health 22:309–35 [Google Scholar]
  36. Geronimus AT. 1992. The weathering hypothesis and the health of African-American women and infants: evidence and speculation. Ethn. Dis. 2:207–21 [Google Scholar]
  37. Geronimus AT, Hicken M, Keene D, Bound J. 2006. “Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. Am. J. Public Health 96:826–33 [Google Scholar]
  38. Gerth H, Mills CW. 1946. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology New York: Oxford [Google Scholar]
  39. Goldman DP, Lawdawalla DN. 2005. A theory of health disparities and medical technology. Contrib. Econ. Anal. Policy 4:1–30 [Google Scholar]
  40. Greenwald AG, Poehlman TA, Uhlmann E, Banaji MR. 2009. Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 97:17–41 [Google Scholar]
  41. GSS (Gen. Soc. Surv.) 2007. Dataset: General Social Surveys, 1972-2006 [cumulative file]. http://www3.norc.org/GSS+Website/Data+Analysis/
  42. Hackbarth DP, Silvestri B, Cosper W. 2014. Tobacco and alcohol billboards in 50 Chicago neighborhoods: market segmentation to sell dangerous products to the poor. J. Public Health Policy 16:213–30 [Google Scholar]
  43. Harper S, Lynch J, Burris S, Davey Smith G. 2007. Trends in the black-white life expectancy gap in the United States, 1983–2003. JAMA 297:1224–32 [Google Scholar]
  44. Harper S, Rushani D, Kaufman JS. 2012. Trends in the black-white life expectancy gap, 2003–2008. JAMA 307:2257–59 [Google Scholar]
  45. Harris DA. 1999. Driving while black: racial profiling on our nation's highways ACLU Special Rep. June 7. https://www.aclu.org/racial-justice/driving-while-black-racial-profiling-our-nations-highways [Google Scholar]
  46. Hatzenbuehler MH, Phelan JC, Link BG. 2013. Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health. Am. J. Public Health 103:813–21 [Google Scholar]
  47. Hayward MD, Miles TP, Crimmins EM, Yang Y. 2000. The significance of socioeconomic status in explaining the racial gap in chronic health conditions. Am. Sociol. Rev. 65:910–30 [Google Scholar]
  48. Hofrichter R. 2000. Reclaiming the Environmental Debate: The Politics of Health in a Toxic Culture Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  49. House JS. 2002. Understanding social factors and inequalities in health: 20th century progress and 21st century prospects. J. Health Soc. Behav. 43:125–42 [Google Scholar]
  50. House JS, Kessler RC, Regula Herzog A, Mero RP, Kinney AM, Breslow MJ. 1990. Age, socioeconomic status, and health. Milbank Q. 68:383–411 [Google Scholar]
  51. House JS, Williams DR. 2000. Understanding and reducing socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities in health. Promoting Health: Intervention Strategies from Social and Behavioral Research BD Smedley, SL Syme 81–124 Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press [Google Scholar]
  52. Hummer RA. 1996. Black-white differences in health and mortality: a review and conceptual model. Sociol. Q. 37:105–25 [Google Scholar]
  53. Hummer RA, Chinn JJ. 2011. Race/ethnicity and U.S. adult mortality: progress, prospects, and new analyses. Du Bois Rev. 8:5–24 [Google Scholar]
  54. Kawachi I, Berkman LF. 2003. Neighborhoods and Health New York: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  55. Kim C, Tamborini CR. 2006. The continuing significance of race in the occupational attainment of whites and blacks: a segmented labor market analysis. Sociol. Inq. 76:23–51 [Google Scholar]
  56. King KE, Morenoff JD, House JS. 2011. Neighborhood context and social disparities in cumulative biological risk factors. Psychosom. Med. 73:572–79 [Google Scholar]
  57. Kouznetsova M, Huang X, Ma J, Lessner L, Carpenter D. 2007. Increased rate of hospitalization for diabetes and residential proximity of hazardous waste sites. Environ. Health Perspect. 115:75–79 [Google Scholar]
  58. Kunst AE, Groenhof F, Mackenbach JP. EU Working Group on Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health 1998. Occupational class and cause specific mortality in middle aged men in 11 European countries: comparison of population based studies. Br. Med. J. 316:1636–42 [Google Scholar]
  59. Kwate NO, Meyer IH. 2009. Association between residential exposure to outdoor alcohol advertising and problem drinking among African American women in New York City. Am. J. Public Health 99:228–30 [Google Scholar]
  60. Lantz PM, House JS, Mero RP, Williams DR. 2005. Stress, life events, and socioeconomic disparities in health: results from the Americans' Changing Lives Study. J. Health Soc. Behav. 46:274–88 [Google Scholar]
  61. LaVeist TA, Wallace JM. 2000. Health risk and inequitable distribution of liquor stores in African American neighborhoods. Soc. Sci. Med. 51:613–17 [Google Scholar]
  62. Lemelle AJ. 2002. The effects of the intersection of race, gender and educational class on occupational prestige. J. Black Stud. 26:89–97 [Google Scholar]
  63. Levine RS, Foster JE, Fullilove RE, Fullilove MT, Briggs NC. et al. 2001. Black-white inequalities in mortality and life expectancy, 1933–1999: implications for healthy people 2010. Public Health Rep. 116:474–83 [Google Scholar]
  64. Lieberson S. 1985. Making It Count: The Improvement of Social Research and Theory Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press [Google Scholar]
  65. Link BG. 2008. Epidemiological sociology and the social shaping of population health. J. Health Soc. Behav. 49:367–84 [Google Scholar]
  66. Link BG, Phelan JC. 1995. Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. J. Health Soc. Behav. 35:Extra issue80–84 [Google Scholar]
  67. Logan JR. 2011. Separate and unequal: the neighborhood gap for blacks, hispanics and asians in metropolitan America. Brief prepared for Project US2010. http://www.s4.brown.edu/us2010/Data/Report/report0727.pdf
  68. Logan JR, Stults B. 2011. The persistence of segregation in the metropolis: new findings from the 2010 Census Census Brief prepared for Project US2010. http://www.s4.brown.edu/us2010/Data/Report/report2.pdf [Google Scholar]
  69. Lutfey K, Freese J. 2005. Toward some fundamentals of fundamental causality: socioeconomic status and health in treatment design for diabetes. Am. J. Sociol. 110:1326–72 [Google Scholar]
  70. Massey D. 2004. Segregation and stratification: a biosocial perspective. Du Bois Rev. 1:7–25 [Google Scholar]
  71. Massey D, Denton NA. 1993. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  72. Maxwell NL. 1994. The effect on black-white wage differences in the quantity and quality of education. ILR Rev. 47:249–64 [Google Scholar]
  73. McEwen BS. 1998. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N. Engl. J. Med. 338:171–79 [Google Scholar]
  74. McKernan SM, Ratcliffe C, Steuerle E, Zhang S. 2013. Less than Equal: Racial Disparities in Wealth Accumulation Washington, DC: Urban Inst. [Google Scholar]
  75. Merton RK. 1968. The Matthew effect in science. Science 159:53–63 [Google Scholar]
  76. Meyer IH. 2003. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol. Bull. 129:674–97 [Google Scholar]
  77. MMWR 1999. Neighborhood safety and the prevalence of physical inactivity—selected states, 1996. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 48:7143–46 [Google Scholar]
  78. Moore LV, Diez Roux AV. 2006. Associations of neighborhood characteristics with the location and type of food stores. Am. J. Public Health 96:325–31 [Google Scholar]
  79. Moore LV, Diez Roux AV, Evenson KR, McGinn AP, Brines SJ. 2008. Availability of recreational resources in minority and low socioeconomic status areas. Am. J. Prev. Med. 34:16–22 [Google Scholar]
  80. Morello-Frosch R, Jesdale BM. 2006. Separate and unequal: residential segregation and estimated cancer risks associated with ambient air toxics in US metropolitan areas. Environ. Health Perspect. 114:386–93 [Google Scholar]
  81. Morello-Frosch R, Lopez R. 2006. The riskscape and the color line: examining the role of segregation in environmental health disparities. Environ. Res. 102:181–96 [Google Scholar]
  82. Morenoff JD. 2003. Neighborhood mechanisms and the special dynamics of birth weight. Am. J. Sociol. 108:976–1017 [Google Scholar]
  83. Morland K, Diez Roux AV, Wing S. 2002. The contextual effect of the local food environment on residents' diets. Am. J. Public Health 92:1761–67 [Google Scholar]
  84. Morland K, Diez Roux AV, Wing S. 2006. Supermarkets, other food stores, and obesity. Am. J. Prev. Med. 30:333–39 [Google Scholar]
  85. National Center for Health Statistics 2004. Health, United States, 2003. Hyattsville, MD: US Dep. Health Hum. Serv. [Google Scholar]
  86. National Center for Health Statistics 2012. Health, United States, 2011: With Special Features on Socioeconomic Status and Health Hyattsville, MD: US Dep. Health Hum. Serv. [Google Scholar]
  87. National Center for Health Statistics 2014. Health, United States, 2013: With Special Features on Prescription Drugs Hyattsville, MD: US Dep. Health Hum. Serv. [Google Scholar]
  88. Nosek BA, Smyth FL, Hansen JJ, Devos T, Lindner NM. et al. 2007. Pervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 18:36–88 [Google Scholar]
  89. Omran AR. 1971. The epidemiological transition: a theory of the epidemiology of population change. Milbank Q. 49:509–38 [Google Scholar]
  90. Orfield G, Eaton SE. Harvard Project on School Desegregation 1996. Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal of Brown v. Board of Education. New York: New Press [Google Scholar]
  91. Pager D. 2003. The mark of a criminal record. Am. J. Sociol. 108:937–75 [Google Scholar]
  92. Paradies Y. 2006. A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. Int. J. Epidemiol. 35:888–901 [Google Scholar]
  93. Parker J, Woodruff T, Basu R, Schoendorf K. 2005. Air pollution and birth weight among term infants in California. Pediatrics 115:121–28 [Google Scholar]
  94. Pascoe E, Smart Richman L. 2009. Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Bull. 135:531–54 [Google Scholar]
  95. Pearlin LI, Schieman S, Fazio EM, Meersman SC. 2005. Stress, health, and the life course: some conceptual perspectives. J. Health Soc. Behav. 46:205–19 [Google Scholar]
  96. Penner LA, Dovidio JF, West TV, Gaertner SL, Albrecht TL. et al. 2010. Aversive racism and medical interactions with Black patients: a field study. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol 46:436–40 [Google Scholar]
  97. Pereira M, Kartashov A, Ebbeling C, Van Horn L, Slattery ML. et al. 2005. Fast food habits, weight gain, and insulin resistance (the CARDIA Study). Lancet 365:36–42 [Google Scholar]
  98. Petersen LA, Wright SM, Peterson ED, Daley J. 2002. Impact of race on cardiac care and outcomes in veterans with acute myocardial infarction. Med. Care 40:Suppl. 186–96 [Google Scholar]
  99. Peterson ED, Shaw LK, DeLong ER, Pryor DB, Califf RM, Mark DB. 1997. Racial variation in the use of coronary-revascularization procedures: Are the differences real? Do they matter?. N. Engl. J. Med. 336:480–86 [Google Scholar]
  100. Pettit B, Western B. 2004. Mass imprisonment and the life course: race and class inequality in US incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69:151–69 [Google Scholar]
  101. Phelan JC, Link BG, Diez-Roux A, Kawachi I, Levin B. 2004. “Fundamental causes” of social inequalities in mortality: a test of the theory. J. Health Soc. Behav. 45:265–85 [Google Scholar]
  102. Phelan JC, Link BG, Tehranifar P. 2010. Social conditions as fundamental causes of health inequalities: theory, findings, and policy implications. J. Health Soc. Behav. 51:528–40 [Google Scholar]
  103. Powell L, Chaloupka F, Bao Y. 2007. The availability of fast food and full-service restaurants in the United States: associations with neighborhood characteristics. Am. J. Prev. Med. 33:S240–S45 [Google Scholar]
  104. Robert SA. 1999. Socioeconomic position and health: the independent contribution of community socioeconomic context. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 25:489–516 [Google Scholar]
  105. Rogers RG, Hummer RA, Nam CB. 2000. Living and Dying in the USA: Behavioral, Health and Social Differentials in Adult Mortality San Diego, CA: Academic [Google Scholar]
  106. Roll Call 2013. 535ish ways to look at the 113th Congress. CQ Roll Call http://media.cq.com/pub/demographics/ [Google Scholar]
  107. Rubin M, Colen C, Link BG. 2010. Examination of inequalities in HIV/AIDS mortality in the United States from a fundamental cause perspective. Am. J. Public Health 100:1053–59 [Google Scholar]
  108. Satcher D, Fryer GE Jr, McCann J, Troutman A, Woolf SH, Rust G. 2005. What if we were equal? A comparison of the black-white mortality gap in 1960 and 2000. Health Aff. 24:459–64 [Google Scholar]
  109. Schuman H, Steeh C, Bobo L, Krysan M. 1997. Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press Revised ed. [Google Scholar]
  110. Sen A. 1999. Development as Freedom Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  111. Sloan FA, Ayyagari P, Salm M, Grossman D. 2010. The longevity gap between black and white men in the United States at the beginning and end of the 20th century. Am. J. Public Health 100:357–63 [Google Scholar]
  112. Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR. 2003. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press [Google Scholar]
  113. Sorlie PD, Backlund E, Keller JB. 1995. US mortality by economic, demographic, and social characteristics: the National Longitudinal Mortality Study. Am. J. Public Health 85:949–56 [Google Scholar]
  114. Sorlie PD, Rogot E, Anderson R, Johnson NJ, Backlund E. 1992. Black-white mortality differences by family income. Lancet 340:346–50 [Google Scholar]
  115. Spalter-Roth R, Lowenthal TA, Rubio M. 2005. Race, ethnicity, and the health of Americans Am. Sociol. Assoc., Washington, DC. www.asanet.org/images/research/docs/pdf/race_ethnicity_health.pdf [Google Scholar]
  116. Steele CM. 1997. A threat in the air: how stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. Am. Psychol. 52:613–29 [Google Scholar]
  117. Tehranifar P, Neugut A, Phelan JC, Link BG, Liao M. et al. 2009. Medical advances and racial/ethnic disparities in cancer survival. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18:2701–8 [Google Scholar]
  118. Turner MA, Ross SL. 2005. How racial discrimination affects the search for housing. The Geography of Opportunity: Race and Housing Choice in Metropolitan America XN DeSouza Briggs, WJ Wilson 81–100 Washington, DC: Brookings Inst. Press [Google Scholar]
  119. US Census Bureau 2013. Educational attainment in the United States: 2012 - detailed tables Washington, DC, US Census Bureau, last revised Jan. 7, 2013. http://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/education/data/cps/2012/tables.html [Google Scholar]
  120. US Census Bureau 2014. Historical income tables: people. Washington, DC, US Census Bureau, last revised Sep. 16, 2014. http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/
  121. US Census Bureau 2015. Educational attainment. CPS historical time series tables. Washington, DC, US Census Bureau, last revised Jan. 20, 2015. http://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/education/data/cps/historical/index.html
  122. van Ryn M, Burke J. 2000. The effect of patient race and socio-economic status on physicians' perceptions of patients. Soc. Sci. Med. 50:813–28 [Google Scholar]
  123. Van Woodward C. 1955. The Strange Career of Jim Crow New York: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  124. Webster M Jr, Driskell JE Jr. 1978. Status generalization: a review and some new data. Am. Sociol. Rev. 43:22–36 [Google Scholar]
  125. Weissert WG, Cready CM. 1988. Determinants of hospital-to-nursing home placement delays: a pilot study. Health Serv. Res. 23:619–48 [Google Scholar]
  126. Wikipedia 2015. List of current United States governors. Wikipedia Last modified on 13 April 2015. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors [Google Scholar]
  127. Williams DR, Collins C. 1995. US socioeconomic and racial differences in health: patterns and explanations. Am. Rev. Sociol. 21:349–86 [Google Scholar]
  128. Williams DR, Collins C. 2001. Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Rep. 116:404–16 [Google Scholar]
  129. Williams DR, Mohammed SA. 2009. Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research. J. Behav. Med. 32:20–47 [Google Scholar]
  130. Williams DR, Sternthal M. 2010. Understanding racial-ethnic disparities in health: sociological contributions. J. Health Soc. Behav. 51:S15–S27 [Google Scholar]
  131. Wrong DH. 1979. Power: Its Forms, Bases, and Uses New York: Harper and Row [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112305
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112305
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error