1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Medicine
  4. Volume 74, 2023
  5. Article

Annual Review of Medicine

Volume 74, 2023

Maternal Mortality in the United States: Trends and Opportunities for Prevention

Abstract

Maternal mortality is unusually high in the United States compared to other wealthy nations and is characterized by major disparities in race/ethnicity, geography, and socioeconomic factors. Similar to other developed nations, the United States has seen a shift in the underlying causes of pregnancy-related death, with a relative increase in mortality resulting from diseases of the cardiovascular system and preexisting medical conditions. Improved continuity of care aimed at identifying reproductive-age women with preexisting conditions that may heighten the risk of maternal death, preconception management of risk factors for major adverse pregnancy outcomes, and primary care visits within the first year after delivery may offer opportunities to address gaps in medical care contributing to the unacceptable rates of maternal mortality in the United States.

Keyword(s): adverse pregnancy outcomes, disparity, maternal mortality, preconception counseling, preconception health
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042921-123851
2023-01-27
2024-04-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/med/74/1/annurev-med-042921-123851.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042921-123851&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1.
    WHO. Reproductive Health https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/reproductive-health. Accessed May 2022
  2. 2.
    Al Khalaf SY, O'Reilly EJ, Barrett PM et al. 2021. Impact of chronic hypertension and antihypertensive treatment on adverse perinatal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 10:e018494
     [Google Scholar]
  3. 3.
    Zetterstrom K, Lindeberg SN, Haglund B, Hanson U. 2005. Maternal complications in women with chronic hypertension: a population-based cohort study. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 84:419–24
     [Google Scholar]
  4. 4.
    Aagaard-Tillery KM, Holmgren C, Lacoursiere DY et al. 2006. Factors associated with nonanomalous stillbirths: the Utah Stillbirth Database 1992–2002. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 194:849–54
     [Google Scholar]
  5. 5.
    Zhou H, Liu Y, Liu L et al. 2016. Maternal pre-pregnancy risk factors for miscarriage from a prevention perspective: a cohort study in China. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 206:57–63
     [Google Scholar]
  6. 6.
    Shand AW, Bell JC, McElduff A et al. 2008. Outcomes of pregnancies in women with pre-gestational diabetes mellitus and gestational diabetes mellitus; a population-based study in New South Wales, Australia, 1998–2002. Diabet. Med. 25:708–15
     [Google Scholar]
  7. 7.
    Inkster ME, Fahey TP, Donnan PT et al. 2006. Poor glycated haemoglobin control and adverse pregnancy outcomes in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review of observational studies. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 6:30
     [Google Scholar]
  8. 8.
    Sibai BM, Caritis SN, Hauth JC et al. 2000. Preterm delivery in women with pregestational diabetes mellitus or chronic hypertension relative to women with uncomplicated pregnancies. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 183:1520–24
     [Google Scholar]
  9. 9.
    Vangen S, Stoltenberg C, Holan S et al. 2003. Outcome of pregnancy among immigrant women with diabetes. Diabetes Care 26:327–32
     [Google Scholar]
  10. 10.
    Al Khalaf S, Bodunde E, Maher GM et al. 2021. Chronic kidney disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 226:656–70
     [Google Scholar]
  11. 11.
    Smyth A, Oliveira GH, Lahr BD et al. 2010. A systematic review and meta-analysis of pregnancy outcomes in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus nephritis. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 5:2060–68
     [Google Scholar]
  12. 12.
    Bundhun PK, Soogund MZ, Huang F. 2017. Impact of systemic lupus erythematosus on maternal and fetal outcomes following pregnancy: a meta-analysis of studies published between years 2001–2016. J. Autoimmun. 79:17–27
     [Google Scholar]
  13. 13.
    Dong Y, Dai Z, Wang Z et al. 2019. Risk of gestational diabetes mellitus in systemic lupus erythematosus pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 19:179
     [Google Scholar]
  14. 14.
    Hardee I, Wright L, McCracken C et al. 2021. Maternal and neonatal outcomes of pregnancies in women with congenital heart disease: a meta-analysis. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 10:e017834
     [Google Scholar]
  15. 15.
    Wang G, Murphy VE, Namazy J et al. 2014. The risk of maternal and placental complications in pregnant women with asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med. 27:934–42
     [Google Scholar]
  16. 16.
    Murphy VE, Namazy JA, Powell H et al. 2011. A meta-analysis of adverse perinatal outcomes in women with asthma. BJOG 118:1314–23
     [Google Scholar]
  17. 17.
    Blais L, Kettani FZ, Forget A. 2013. Relationship between maternal asthma, its severity and control and abortion. Hum. Reprod. 28:908–15
     [Google Scholar]
  18. 18.
    Chen L, Hu R. 2011. Thyroid autoimmunity and miscarriage: a meta-analysis. Clin. Endocrinol. 74:513–19
     [Google Scholar]
  19. 19.
    Chan S, Boelaert K. 2015. Optimal management of hypothyroidism, hypothyroxinaemia and euthyroid TPO antibody positivity preconception and in pregnancy. Clin. Endocrinol. 82:313–26
     [Google Scholar]
  20. 20.
    Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, Laurberg P. 2014. Spontaneous abortion, stillbirth and hyperthyroidism: a Danish population-based study. Eur. Thyroid J. 3:164–72
     [Google Scholar]
  21. 21.
    Wang YX, Arvizu M, Rich-Edwards JW et al. 2021. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and subsequent risk of premature mortality. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 77:1302–12
     [Google Scholar]
  22. 22.
    Wang YX, Minguez-Alarcon L, Gaskins AJ et al. 2021. Association of spontaneous abortion with all cause and cause specific premature mortality: prospective cohort study. BMJ 372:n530
     [Google Scholar]
  23. 23.
    Wang YX, Minguez-Alarcon L, Gaskins AJ et al. 2022. Pregnancy loss and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Nurses’ Health Study II. Eur. Heart J. 43:190–99
     [Google Scholar]
  24. 24.
    Tanz LJ, Stuart JJ, Williams PL et al. 2019. Preterm delivery and maternal cardiovascular disease risk factors: the Nurses’ Health Study II. J. Women's Health 28:677–85
     [Google Scholar]
  25. 25.
    Heida KY, Franx A, van Rijn BB et al. 2015. Earlier age of onset of chronic hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus after a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy or gestational diabetes mellitus. Hypertension 66:1116–22
     [Google Scholar]
  26. 26.
    WHO 2019. Trends in Maternal Mortality 2000 to 2017: Estimates by WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group and the United Nations Population Division Geneva: World Health Organ https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/327595
  27. 27.
    Ahn R, Gonzalez GP, Anderson B et al. 2020. Initiatives to reduce maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity in the United States: a narrative review. Ann. Intern. Med. 173:S3–10
     [Google Scholar]
  28. 28.
    Declerq E, Zephyrin L. 2020. Maternal mortality in the United States: a primer Rep. Commonwealth Fund New York, NY: https://doi.org/10.26099/ta1q-mw24
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  29. 29.
    Hoyeart DL. 2022. Maternal mortality rates in the United States, 2020 NCHS Health E-Stats, CDC Atlanta, GA: https://dx.doi.org/10.15620/cdc:113967
    [Crossref]
  30. 30.
    ACOG. 2019.. ACOG Committee Opinion no. 762: prepregnancy counseling. Obstet. Gynecol. 133:e78–89
     [Google Scholar]
  31. 31.
    Kassebaum NJ, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA et al. 2016. Global, regional, and national levels of maternal mortality, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet 388:1775–812
     [Google Scholar]
  32. 32.
    Wang S, Wang YX, Sandoval-Insausti H et al. 2022. Menstrual cycle characteristics and incident cancer: a prospective cohort study. Hum. Reprod. 37:341–51
     [Google Scholar]
  33. 33.
    Wang YX, Arvizu M, Rich-Edwards JW et al. 2020. Menstrual cycle regularity and length across the reproductive lifespan and risk of premature mortality: prospective cohort study. BMJ 371:m3464
     [Google Scholar]
  34. 34.
    CDC 1995. Differences in maternal mortality among black and white women – United States, 1990. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 44:6–7 13–14
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35.
    Creanga AA, Berg CJ, Ko JY et al. 2014. Maternal mortality and morbidity in the United States: Where are we now?. J. Women's Health 23:3–9
     [Google Scholar]
  36. 36.
    Creanga AA, Syverson C, Seed K, Callaghan WM. 2017. Pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 2011–2013. Obstet. Gynecol. 130:366–73
     [Google Scholar]
  37. 37.
    Petersen EE, Davis NL, Goodman D et al. 2019. Racial/ethnic disparities in pregnancy-related deaths—United States, 2007–2016. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 68:762–65
     [Google Scholar]
  38. 38.
    Building U.S. Capacity to Review and Prevent Maternal Deaths Project Team 2018. Report from nine maternal mortality review committees Rep. Assoc. Maternal and Child Health Programs, CDC Found., Cent. Dis. Control Prev., Rollins School of Public Health et al. https://www.cdcfoundation.org/sites/default/files/files/ReportfromNineMMRCs.pdf
  39. 39.
    Petersen EE, Davis NL, Goodman D et al. 2019. Vital signs: pregnancy-related deaths, United States, 2011–2015, and strategies for prevention, 13 states, 2013–2017. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 68:423–29
     [Google Scholar]
  40. 40.
    Davis NL, Smoots AN, Goodman DA. 2019. Pregnancy-related deaths: data from 14 U.S. maternal mortality review committees, 2008–2017 Rep. US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., CDC Atlanta, GA:
  41. 41.
    Geiger CK, Clapp MA, Cohen JL. 2021. Association of prenatal care services, maternal morbidity, and perinatal mortality with the advanced maternal age cutoff of 35 years. JAMA Health Forum 2:e214044
     [Google Scholar]
  42. 42.
    Nelson DB, Moniz MH, Davis MM. 2018. Population-level factors associated with maternal mortality in the United States, 1997–2012. BMC Public Health 18: 1007.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. 43.
    Lean SC, Derricott H, Jones RL, Heazell AEP. 2017. Advanced maternal age and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE 12:e0186287
     [Google Scholar]
  44. 44.
    Guelinckx I, Devlieger R, Vansant G. 2009. Reproductive outcome after bariatric surgery: a critical review. Hum. Reprod. Update 15:189–201
     [Google Scholar]
  45. 45.
    Vats H, Saxena R, Sachdeva MP et al. 2021. Impact of maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index on maternal, fetal and neonatal adverse outcomes in the worldwide populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Res. Clin. Pract. 15:536–45
     [Google Scholar]
  46. 46.
    Schummers L, Hutcheon JA, Bodnar LM et al. 2015. Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes by prepregnancy body mass index: a population-based study to inform prepregnancy weight loss counseling. Obstet. Gynecol. 125:133–43
     [Google Scholar]
  47. 47.
    Mhyre JM, D'Oria R, Hameed AB et al. 2014. The maternal early warning criteria: a proposal from the national partnership for maternal safety. Obstet. Gynecol. 124:782–86
     [Google Scholar]
  48. 48.
    Moaddab A, Dildy GA, Brown HL et al. 2018. Health care disparity and pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 2005–2014. Obstet. Gynecol. 131:707–12
     [Google Scholar]
  49. 49.
    CDC 2020. Maternal mortality by state, 2018 Table Natl. Cent. Health Stat., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., CDC, Hyattsville, MD. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/maternal-mortality/MMR-2018-State-Data-508.pdf
  50. 50.
    Hoyert DL, Danel I, Tully P. 2000. Maternal mortality, United States and Canada, 1982–1997. Birth 27:4–11
     [Google Scholar]
  51. 51.
    Geronimus AT, Hicken M, Keene D, Bound J 2006.. “ Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. Am. J. Public Health 96:826–33
     [Google Scholar]
  52. 52.
    Bryant AS, Cahill AG, Kuller JA et al. 2021. Low-dose aspirin use for the prevention of preeclampsia and related morbidity and mortality Pract. Advis. Am. Coll. Obstet. Gynecol. and Soc. Matern.-Fetal Med., Washington, DC. https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/practice-advisory/articles/2021/12/low-dose-aspirin-use-for-the-prevention-of-preeclampsia-and-related-morbidity-and-mortality
  53. 53.
    USPSTF 2021. Aspirin use to prevent preeclampsia and related morbidity and mortality: US preventive services task force recommendation statement. JAMA 326:1186–91
     [Google Scholar]
  54. 54.
    Agrawala S, Sjaarda LA, Omosigho UR et al. 2019. Effect of preconception low dose aspirin on pregnancy and live birth according to socioeconomic status: a secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial. PLOS ONE 14:e0200533
     [Google Scholar]
  55. 55.
    Nobles CJ, Mendola P, Mumford SL et al. 2019. Metabolic syndrome and the effectiveness of low-dose aspirin on reproductive outcomes. Epidemiology 30:573–81
     [Google Scholar]
  56. 56.
    Naimi AI, Perkins NJ, Sjaarda LA et al. 2021. The effect of preconception-initiated low-dose aspirin on human chorionic gonadotropin-detected pregnancy, pregnancy loss, and live birth: per protocol analysis of a randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 174:595–601
     [Google Scholar]
  57. 57.
    Khan NN, Boyle JA, Lang AY, Harrison CL. 2019. Preconception health attitudes and behaviours of women: a qualitative investigation. Nutrients 11:1490
     [Google Scholar]
  58. 58.
    Stulberg DB, Datta A, White VanGompel E et al. 2020. One Key Question® and the Desire to Avoid Pregnancy Scale: a comparison of two approaches to asking about pregnancy preferences. Contraception 101:231–36
     [Google Scholar]
  59. 59.
    Wang S, Mínguez-Alarcón L, Hart JE, Chavarro JE. 2021. Dynamics of pregnancy intention and pregnancy incidence among professional women. Fertil. Steril. 116:Suppl.E294
     [Google Scholar]
  60. 60.
    WHO 2013. Preconception care to reduce maternal and childhood mortality and morbidity: policy brief World Health Organ. Geneva, Switz: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/340533
  61. 61.
    Chen S, Zhou X, Zhu H et al. 2017. Preconception TSH and pregnancy outcomes: a population-based cohort study in 184 611 women. Clin. Endocrinol. 86:816–24
     [Google Scholar]
  62. 62.
    Yang Y, Guo T, Fu J et al. 2021. Preconception thyrotropin levels and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in Chinese women aged 20 to 49 years. JAMA Netw. Open 4:e215723
     [Google Scholar]
  63. 63.
    Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H et al. 2012. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Endocr. Pract. 18:988–1028
     [Google Scholar]
  64. 64.
    Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA et al. 2017. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid 27:315–89
     [Google Scholar]
  65. 65.
    Admon LK, Winkelman TNA, Heisler M, Dalton VK. 2018. Obstetric outcomes and delivery-related health care utilization and costs among pregnant women with multiple chronic conditions. Prev. Chronic Dis. 15:E21
     [Google Scholar]
  66. 66.
    ACOG 2019. ACOG practice bulletin no. 212: pregnancy and heart disease. Obstet. Gynecol. 133:e320–56
     [Google Scholar]
  67. 67.
    Willhoite MB, Bennert HW Jr., Palomaki GE et al. 1993. The impact of preconception counseling on pregnancy outcomes. The experience of the Maine Diabetes in Pregnancy Program. Diabetes Care 16:450–55
     [Google Scholar]
  68. 68.
    Wahabi HA, Alzeidan RA, Bawazeer GA et al. 2010. Preconception care for diabetic women for improving maternal and fetal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 10:63
     [Google Scholar]
  69. 69.
    Hales CM, Carroll MD, Fryar CD, Ogden CL. 2020. Prevalence of obesity and severe obesity among adults: United States, 2017–2018. NCHS Data Brief 360:1–8
     [Google Scholar]
  70. 70.
    Dalenius K, Brindley P, Smith B et al. 2012. Pregnancy nutrition surveillance: 2010 report US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., CDC Atlanta, GA:
  71. 71.
    Schenkelaars N, Rousian M, Hoek J et al. 2021. Preconceptional maternal weight loss and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 75:1684–97
     [Google Scholar]
  72. 72.
    Kwong W, Tomlinson G, Feig DS. 2018. Maternal and neonatal outcomes after bariatric surgery; a systematic review and meta-analysis: Do the benefits outweigh the risks?. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 218:573–80
     [Google Scholar]
  73. 73.
    Johansson K, Cnattingius S, Naslund I et al. 2015. Outcomes of pregnancy after bariatric surgery. N. Engl. J. Med. 372:814–24
     [Google Scholar]
  74. 74.
    LeBlanc ES, Smith NX, Vesco KK et al. 2021. Weight loss prior to pregnancy and early gestational glycemia: Prepare, a randomized clinical trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 106:e5001–10
     [Google Scholar]
  75. 75.
    LeBlanc ES, Smith NX, Vesco KK et al. 2021. Weight loss prior to pregnancy and subsequent gestational weight gain: Prepare, a randomized clinical trial. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 224:99.e1–14
     [Google Scholar]
  76. 76.
    Legro RS, Hansen KR, Diamond MP et al. 2022. Effects of preconception lifestyle intervention in infertile women with obesity: the FIT-PLESE randomized controlled trial. PLOS Med. 19:e1003883
     [Google Scholar]
  77. 77.
    Einarsson S, Bergh C, Friberg B et al. 2017. Weight reduction intervention for obese infertile women prior to IVF: a randomized controlled trial. Hum. Reprod. 32:1621–30
     [Google Scholar]
  78. 78.
    Mutsaerts MA, van Oers AM, Groen H et al. 2016. Randomized trial of a lifestyle program in obese infertile women. N. Engl. J. Med. 374:1942–53
     [Google Scholar]
  79. 79.
    van Elten TM, Karsten MDA, Geelen A et al. 2019. Preconception lifestyle intervention reduces long term energy intake in women with obesity and infertility: a randomised controlled trial. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act 16:3
     [Google Scholar]
  80. 80.
    Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB et al. 2011. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. N. Engl. J. Med. 364:2392–404
     [Google Scholar]
  81. 81.
    Timmermans YEG, van de Kant KDG, Oosterman EO et al. 2020. The impact of interpregnancy weight change on perinatal outcomes in women and their children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Rev. 21:e12974
     [Google Scholar]
  82. 82.
    Nagpal TS, Souza SCS, Moffat M et al. 2022. Does prepregnancy weight change have an effect on subsequent pregnancy health outcomes? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Rev. 23:e13324
     [Google Scholar]
  83. 83.
    Keats EC, Haider BA, Tam E, Bhutta ZA 2019. Multiple-micronutrient supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3:CD004905
     [Google Scholar]
  84. 84.
    Tuncalp O, Rogers LM, Lawrie TA et al. 2020. WHO recommendations on antenatal nutrition: an update on multiple micronutrient supplements. BMJ Glob. Health 5:e003375
     [Google Scholar]
  85. 85.
    Zhang C, Schulze MB, Solomon CG, Hu FB. 2006. A prospective study of dietary patterns, meat intake and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 49:2604–13
     [Google Scholar]
  86. 86.
    Tobias DK, Zhang C, Chavarro J et al. 2012. Prepregnancy adherence to dietary patterns and lower risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96:289–95
     [Google Scholar]
  87. 87.
    Arvizu M, Stuart JJ, Rich-Edwards JW et al. 2020. Prepregnancy adherence to dietary recommendations for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in relation to risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 112:1429–37
     [Google Scholar]
  88. 88.
    Meher S, Duley L. 2006. Exercise or other physical activity for preventing pre-eclampsia and its complications. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2:CD005942
     [Google Scholar]
  89. 89.
    Han S, Middleton P, Crowther CA. 2012. Exercise for pregnant women for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 7:CD009021
     [Google Scholar]
  90. 90.
    Magro-Malosso ER, Saccone G, Di Mascio D et al. 2017. Exercise during pregnancy and risk of preterm birth in overweight and obese women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 96:263–73
     [Google Scholar]
  91. 91.
    ACOG Comm. Obstet. Pract 2020. Physical activity and exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period: ACOG committee opinion no. 804. Obstet. Gynecol. 135:e178–88
     [Google Scholar]
  92. 92.
    Barakat R, Pelaez M, Cordero Y et al. 2016. Exercise during pregnancy protects against hypertension and macrosomia: randomized clinical trial. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 214:649.e1–8
     [Google Scholar]
  93. 93.
    Ruiz JR, Perales M, Pelaez M et al. 2013. Supervised exercise-based intervention to prevent excessive gestational weight gain: a randomized controlled trial. Mayo Clin. Proc. 88:1388–97
     [Google Scholar]
  94. 94.
    Stafne SN, Salvesen KA, Romundstad PR et al. 2012. Regular exercise during pregnancy to prevent gestational diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet. Gynecol. 119:29–36
     [Google Scholar]
  95. 95.
    Price BB, Amini SB, Kappeler K. 2012. Exercise in pregnancy: effect on fitness and obstetric outcomes—a randomized trial. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 44:2263–69
     [Google Scholar]
  96. 96.
    de Oliveria Melo AS, Silva JL, Tavares JS et al. 2012. Effect of a physical exercise program during pregnancy on uteroplacental and fetal blood flow and fetal growth: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet. Gynecol. 120:302–10
     [Google Scholar]
  97. 97.
    Arvizu M, Minguez-Alarcon L, Stuart JJ et al. 2021. Physical activity before pregnancy and the risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Matern.-Fetal Med. 4:100556
     [Google Scholar]
  98. 98.
    Aune D, Saugstad OD, Henriksen T, Tonstad S. 2014. Physical activity and the risk of preeclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiology 25:331–43
     [Google Scholar]
  99. 99.
    Tobias DK, Zhang C, van Dam RM et al. 2011. Physical activity before and during pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 34:223–29
     [Google Scholar]
  100. 100.
    Zhang C, Solomon CG, Manson JE, Hu FB. 2006. A prospective study of pregravid physical activity and sedentary behaviors in relation to the risk for gestational diabetes mellitus. Arch. Intern. Med. 166:543–48
     [Google Scholar]
  101. 101.
    McKinney J, Keyser L, Clinton S, Pagliano C 2018. Optimizing postpartum care: ACOG committee opinion no. 736. Obstet. Gynecol. 132:3784–85
     [Google Scholar]
  102. 102.
    Leon LJ, McCarthy FP, Direk K et al. 2019. Preeclampsia and cardiovascular disease in a large UK pregnancy cohort of linked electronic health records: a CALIBER study. Circulation 140:1050–60
     [Google Scholar]
  103. 103.
    Seely EW, Celi AC, Chausmer J et al. 2021. Cardiovascular health after preeclampsia: patient and provider perspective. J. Women's Health 30:305–13
     [Google Scholar]
  104. 104.
    Timpka S, Stuart JJ, Tanz LJ et al. 2017. Lifestyle in progression from hypertensive disorders of pregnancy to chronic hypertension in Nurses’ Health Study II: observational cohort study. BMJ 358:j3024
     [Google Scholar]
  105. 105.
    Tobias DK, Stuart JJ, Li S et al. 2017. Association of history of gestational diabetes with long-term cardiovascular disease risk in a large prospective cohort of US women. JAMA Intern. Med. 177:1735–42
     [Google Scholar]
  106. 106.
    Shah BR, Retnakaran R, Booth GL. 2008. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease in young women following gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 31:1668–69
     [Google Scholar]
  107. 107.
    Bao W, Tobias DK, Bowers K et al. 2014. Physical activity and sedentary behaviors associated with risk of progression from gestational diabetes mellitus to type 2 diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. JAMA Intern. Med. 174:1047–55
     [Google Scholar]
  108. 108.
    Crump C, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. 2020. Preterm delivery and long term mortality in women: national cohort and co-sibling study. BMJ 370:m2533
     [Google Scholar]
  109. 109.
    Rich-Edwards JW, Klungsoyr K, Wilcox AJ, Skjaerven R. 2015. Duration of pregnancy, even at term, predicts long-term risk of coronary heart disease and stroke mortality in women: a population-based study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 213:518.e1–8
     [Google Scholar]
  110. 110.
    Horn J, Tanz LJ, Stuart JJ et al. 2019. Early or late pregnancy loss and development of clinical cardiovascular disease risk factors: a prospective cohort study. BJOG 126:33–42
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042921-123851
Loading
Maternal Mortality in the United States: Trends and Opportunities for Prevention
Annual Review of Medicine 74, 199 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-042921-123851
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042921-123851
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042921-123851
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error