Training the Next Generation of Clinical Psychological Scientists: A Data-Driven Call to Action

Literature Cited

1. AAUP (Am. Assoc. Univ. Professors) 2020. The annual report on the economic status of the profession, 2019–20 Rep., AAUP Washington, DC:
2. ACHA (Am. Coll. Health Assoc.) 2021. ACHA-NCHA-III Codebook Silver Spring, MD: ACHA
3. AHRQ (Agency Healthc. Res. Qual.) 2019. 2018 national healthcare quality and disparities report Rep. 19-0070-EF, AHRQ Rockville, MD: https://www.ahrq.gov/research/findings/nhqrdr/nhqdr18/index.html
4. Alberts B, Kirschner MW, Tilghman S, Varmus H. 2014. Rescuing US biomedical research from its systemic flaws. PNAS 111:5773–77
   [Google Scholar]
5. APA (Am. Psychol. Assoc.) 1947. Recommended graduate training program in clinical psychology. Am. Psychol. 2:539–58
   [Google Scholar]
6. APA (Am. Psychol. Assoc.) 1950. Annual report of the Committee on Training in Clinical Psychology: 1950. Am. Psychol. 5:585–93
   [Google Scholar]
7. APA (Am. Psychol. Assoc.) 2019. The academic psychology workforce: characteristics of psychology research doctorates in faculty positions (1995–2015) Rep., APA Washington, DC:
   [Google Scholar]
8. APA (Am. Psychol. Assoc.) 2020. CWS data tool: demographics of the U.S. psychology workforce Interact. Data Tool, APA Washington, DC: https://www.apa.org/workforce/data-tools/demographics
9. APPIC (Assoc. Psychol. Postdr. Internsh. Cent.) 2021. 2021 APPIC Match: survey of internship applicants: part 1: summary of survey results Rep., APPIC Houston, TX: https://www.appic.org/Internships/Match/Match-Statistics/Applicant-Survey-2021-Part-1
10. Azubuike NO, Benson RT, Kumar A, Mathews K. 2019. COACHE summary tables 2019: selected dimensions of the faculty workplace experience. Harvard University https://coache.gse.harvard.edu/coache-summary-tables-2019
    [Google Scholar]
11. Baker TB, McFall RM, Shoham V. 2008. Current status and future prospects of clinical psychology: toward a scientifically principled approach to mental and behavioral health care. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 9:67–103
    [Google Scholar]
12. Baldwin J. 1998. James Baldwin: Collected Essays New York: Library of America
13. Barrett LF. 2019. The publication arms race. APS Obs 32:73–4
    [Google Scholar]
14. Benjamin LT Jr. 2005. A history of clinical psychology as a profession in America (and a glimpse at its future). Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 1:1–30
    [Google Scholar]
15. Berenbaum H, Washburn JJ, Sbarra D, Reardon KW, Schuler T et al. 2021. Accelerating the rate of progress in reducing mental health burdens: recommendations for training the next generation of clinical psychologists. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 28:107–23
    [Google Scholar]
16. Bickman L. 1999. Practice makes perfect and other myths about mental health services. Am. Psychol. 54:965–78
    [Google Scholar]
17. Borkovec TD. 2004. Research in training clinics and practice research networks: a route to the integration of science and practice. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 11:211–15
    [Google Scholar]
18. Brass LF, Akabas MH. 2019. The national MD-PhD program outcomes study: relationships between medical specialty, training duration, research effort, and career paths. JCI Insight 4:19e133009
    [Google Scholar]
19. CACTUS Found 2020. Joy and stress triggers: a global survey on mental health among researchers Rep., Cactus Commun. Princeton, NJ:
20. Campoli J, Cummings JA. 2019. Self-care in clinical psychology trainees: current approach and future recommendations. Behav. Ther. 42:12–17
    [Google Scholar]
21. Castonguay LG. 2011. Psychotherapy, psychopathology, research and practice: pathways of connections and integration. Psychother. Res. 21:125–40
    [Google Scholar]
22. Castonguay LG, Pincus AL, McAleavey AA 2015. Practice research network in a psychology training clinic: building an infrastructure to foster early attachment to the scientific-practitioner model. Psychother. Res. 25:52–66
    [Google Scholar]
23. CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.) 2020. Youth risk behavior survey data summary & trends report: 2009–2019 Rep., CDC Atlanta, GA:
24. Cénat JM. 2020. How to provide anti-racist mental health care. Lancet Psychiatry 7:929–31
    [Google Scholar]
25. CGS (Counc. Grad. Schools), Jed Found 2021. Supporting graduate student mental health and well-being: evidence-informed recommendations for the graduate community Rep., CGS Washington, DC:
26. Christidis P, Stamm K, Lin L, Conroy J 2019. Educating the next generation. Monit. Psychol. 50:721
    [Google Scholar]
27. CoA 2021a. Commission on Accreditation: Implementing Regulations Regul., Am. Psychol. Assoc. Washington, DC:
28. CoA 2021b. 2020 annual report online: summary data: doctoral programs Annu. Rep. Data, Am. Psychol. Assoc. Washington, DC:
29. CSHE (Cent. Stud. High. Educ.) 2021. gradSERU survey design. University of California, Berkeley, Center for Studies in Higher Education https://cshe.berkeley.edu/seru/about-seru/seru-surveys/gradseru-survey-design
    [Google Scholar]
30. De Los Reyes A, Uddin LQ. 2021. Revising evaluation metrics for graduate admissions and faculty advancement to dismantle privilege. Nat. Neurosci. 24:755–58
    [Google Scholar]
31. Dougherty MR, Slevc LR, Grand JA. 2019. Making research evaluation more transparent: aligning research philosophy, institutional values, and reporting. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 14:361–75
    [Google Scholar]
32. Duffy MA, Tronson NC, Eisenberg D. 2021. Supporting mental health and productivity within labs. Neuron 109:203206–10
    [Google Scholar]
33. Edwards MA, Roy S. 2017. Academic research in the 21st century: maintaining scientific integrity in a climate of perverse incentives and hypercompetition. Environ. Eng. Sci. 34:51–61
    [Google Scholar]
34. El-Ghoroury NH, Galper DI, Sawaqdeh A, Bufka LF. 2012. Stress, coping, and barriers to wellness among psychology graduate students. Train. Educ. Prof. Psychol. 6:122–34
    [Google Scholar]
35. Evans TM, Bira L, Gastelum JB, Weiss LT, Vanderford NL. 2018. Evidence for a mental health crisis in graduate education. Nat. Biotechnol. 36:282–84
    [Google Scholar]
36. Fernandes JD, Sarabipour S, Smith CT, Niemi NM, Jadavji NM et al. 2020. Research culture: a survey-based analysis of the academic job market. eLife 9:e54097
    [Google Scholar]
37. Finkelhor D, Turner H, LaSelva D 2021. Receipt of behavioral health services among US children and youth with adverse childhood experiences or mental health symptoms. JAMA Netw. Open 4:e211435
    [Google Scholar]
38. Forrester N. 2021. Mental health of graduate students sorely overlooked. Nature 595:135–37
    [Google Scholar]
39. Frank G. 1984. The Boulder Model: history, rationale, and critique. Prof. Psychol. Res. Pract. 15:417–35
    [Google Scholar]
40. Freeman J. 2018. LGBTQ scientists are still left out. Nature 559:27–28
    [Google Scholar]
41. Fried EI. 2017. Are we asking too much? A list of competencies people expect me to have. Measurement, Modeling & Complexity of Mental Health Blog Aug. 29. https://eiko-fried.com/are-we-asking-too-much-a-list-of-competencies-people-expect-me-to-have/
    [Google Scholar]
42. Frith U. 2020. Fast lane to slow science. Trends Cogn. Sci. 24:1–2
    [Google Scholar]
43. Fuhrmann CN, Halme DG, O'Sullivan PS, Lindstaedt B. 2011. Improving graduate education to support a branching career pipeline: recommendations based on a survey of doctoral students in the basic biomedical sciences. CBE Life Sci. Educ. 10:239–49
    [Google Scholar]
44. Galán CA, Bekele B, Boness C, Bowdring M, Call C et al. 2021. Editorial: a call to action for an antiracist clinical science. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 50:12–57
    [Google Scholar]
45. Gilliland CT, White J, Gee B, Kreeftmeijer-Vegter R, Bietrix F et al. 2019. The fundamental characteristics of a translational scientist. ACS Pharmacol. Transl. Sci. 2:213–16
    [Google Scholar]
46. gradSERU 2021. 2021 gradSERU survey instrument: core survey Survey Instr., SERU Consort https://seru.tamu.edu/assessment/media/Survey-Instruments/gradSERU-2021-Instrument-Survey-Core.pdf
47. Gruber J, Mendle J, Lindquist KA, Schmader T, Clark LA et al. 2021. The future of women in psychological science. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 16:483–516
    [Google Scholar]
48. Hatzenbuehler ML. 2016. Structural stigma: research evidence and implications for psychological science. Am. Psychol. 71:742–51
    [Google Scholar]
49. Hazell CM, Chapman L, Valeix SF, Roberts P, Niven JE, Berry C 2020. Understanding the mental health of doctoral researchers: a mixed methods systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-synthesis. Syst. Rev. 9:197
    [Google Scholar]
50. Jaremka LM, Ackerman JM, Gawronski B, Rule NO, Sweeny K et al. 2020. Common academic experiences no one talks about: repeated rejection, impostor syndrome, and burnout. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 15:519–43
    [Google Scholar]
51. Jones-London M. 2020. NINDS strategies for enhancing the diversity of neuroscience researchers. Neuron 107:212–14
    [Google Scholar]
52. Jordan A, Shim RS, Rodriguez CI, Bath E, Alves-Bradford JM et al. 2021. Psychiatry diversity leadership in academic medicine: guidelines for success. Am. J. Psychiatry 178:224–28
    [Google Scholar]
53. Kotov R, Krueger RF, Watson D, Cicero DC, Conway CC et al. 2021. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): a quantitative nosology based on consensus of evidence. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 17:83–108
    [Google Scholar]
54. Kraut AG. 2021. PCSAS: by the numbers. Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System https://mailchi.mp/39f1a42b291d/pcsasbythenumbers
    [Google Scholar]
55. Ledgerwood A, Hudson STJ, Lewis JN, Maddox K, Pickett C et al. 2022. The pandemic as a portal: reimagining psychological science as truly open and inclusive. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. In press
    [Google Scholar]
56. Levenson RW. 2017. Clinical psychology training: accreditation and beyond. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 13:1–22
    [Google Scholar]
57. Lin L, Christidis P, Conroy J 2018. Federal research funding for psychology has not kept up with inflation. Monit. Psychol. 49:1021
    [Google Scholar]
58. Lipson SK, Kern A, Eisenberg D, Breland-Noble AM. 2018. Mental health disparities among college students of color. J. Adolesc. Health 63:348–56
    [Google Scholar]
59. Lombardi D, Shipley TF, Discip.-Based Educ. Res. Teams. 2021. The curious construct of active learning. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 22:18–43
    [Google Scholar]
60. Lucock M, Barkham M, Donohoe G, Kellett S, McMillan D et al. 2017. The role of practice research networks (PRN) in the development and implementation of evidence: the Northern Improving Access to Psychological Therapies PRN case study. Adm. Policy Mental Health Mental Health Serv. Res. 44:919–31
    [Google Scholar]
61. Marrast L, Himmelstein DU, Woolhandler S. 2016. Racial and ethnic disparities in mental health care for children and young adults: a national study. Int. J. Health Serv. 46:810–24
    [Google Scholar]
62. McFall RM. 2006. Doctoral training in clinical psychology. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2:21–49
    [Google Scholar]
63. McFall RM, Treat TA, Simons RF. 2015. Clinical science model. The Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology RL Cautin, SO Lilienfeld 1–9 New York: Wiley-Blackwell
    [Google Scholar]
64. McMinn MR, Tabor A, Trihub BL, Taylor L, Dominguez AW 2009. Reading in graduate school: a survey of doctoral students in clinical psychology. Train. Educ. Prof. Psychol. 3:233–39
    [Google Scholar]
65. Mei C, Fitzsimons J, Allen N, Alvarez-Jimenez M, Amminger GP et al. 2020. Global research priorities for youth mental health. Early Intervent. Psychiatry 14:3–13
    [Google Scholar]
66. Miller AE. 2021. Self-care as a competency benchmark: creating a culture of shared responsibility. Train. Educ. Prof. Psychol. In press. https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000386
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
67. Miller JG. 1946. Clinical psychology in the Veterans Administration. Am. Psychol. 1:181–89
    [Google Scholar]
68. Millman KJ, Brett M, Barnowski R, Poline J-B. 2018. Teaching computational reproducibility for neuroimaging. Front. Neurosci. 12:727
    [Google Scholar]
69. Mote J, Fulford D. 2021. Now is the time to support black individuals in the US living with serious mental illness—a call to action. JAMA Psychiatry 78:129–30
    [Google Scholar]
70. NASEM (Natl. Acad. Sci. Eng. Med.) 2021. Mental Health, Substance Use, and Wellbeing in Higher Education: Supporting the Whole Student Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
71. Nature Research 2019. 2019 Nature PhD students survey data Data Set. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.10266299.v1
    [Crossref]
72. NIH (Natl. Inst. Health) 2016. Average age and degree of NIH R01-equivalent first-time awardees, fiscal years 1980–2016 Chart 440-16-1, NIH Bethesda, MD: https://grants.nih.gov/grants/new_investigators/Age_Degree-First-Time-117-16_RFM_lls_25march2016_DR-Approved.xlsx
    [Google Scholar]
73. NIH (Natl. Inst. Health) 2021. Research project success rates by NIH institute for 2018. NIH RePORT https://report.nih.gov/success_rates/success_byic.cfm
    [Google Scholar]
74. NSF (Natl. Sci. Foundation) 2019. Doctorate recipients from U.S. universities: 2019. National Science Foundation https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf21308
    [Google Scholar]
75. Palitsky R, Kaplan DM, Brodt MA, Anderson MR, Athey Aet al 2022. Systemic challenges in health service psychology internship training: a call to action from trainee stakeholders. Clin. Psychol. Sci In press
    [Google Scholar]
76. Pascoe EA, Smart Richman L. 2009. Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Bull. 135:531–54
    [Google Scholar]
77. PayScale 2021. Cost of living calculator. Payscale https://www.payscale.com/cost-of-living-calculator
    [Google Scholar]
78. PCSAS (Psychol. Clin. Sci. Accred. Syst.) 2021. Frequently asked questions (FAQs) about the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS) and psychological clinical science. Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System https://www.pcsas.org/faq/
    [Google Scholar]
79. Peterson Foundation 2021. 10 key facts about student debt in the United States. Peter G. Peterson Foundation https://www.pgpf.org/blog/2021/05/10-key-facts-about-student-debt-in-the-united-states
    [Google Scholar]
80. Pickren W. 2007. Tension and opportunity in post-World War II American psychology. Hist. Psychol. 10:279–99
    [Google Scholar]
81. Polo AJ, Makol BA, Castro AS, Colón-Quintana N, Wagstaff AE, Guo S. 2019. Diversity in randomized clinical trials of depression: a 36-year review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 67:22–35
    [Google Scholar]
82. Psychology Job Wiki 2019. Psychology Job Wiki, 2018–2019. http://psychjobsearch.wikidot.com/2018
83. Raimy V 1950. Training in Clinical Psychology New York: Prentice Hall
84. Roberts SO, Bareket-Shavit C, Dollins FA, Goldie PD, Mortenson E 2020. Racial inequality in psychological research: trends of the past and recommendations for the future. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 15:1295–309
    [Google Scholar]
85. Rosner RI. 2014. The “splendid isolation” of Aaron T. Beck.. Isis 105:734–58
    [Google Scholar]
86. Rubin L. 2021. David Barlow on transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders. Psychotherapy.net https://www.psychotherapy.net/interview/barlow-interview
    [Google Scholar]
87. Rummell CM. 2015. An exploratory study of psychology graduate student workload, health, and program satisfaction. Prof. Psychol. Res. Pract. 46:391–99
    [Google Scholar]
88. SAMHSA (Subst. Abuse Mental Health Serv. Admin.) 2019. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: results from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health HHS Publ. PEP19-5068, NSDUH Ser. H-54, Cent. Behav. Health Stat. Qual. Rockville, MD:
89. Sampson CL, Frye BM, Carlo MA 2018. A graduate student's worth. Curr. Biol. 28:R850–52
    [Google Scholar]
90. Satinsky EN, Kimura T, Kiang MV, Abebe R, Cunningham S et al. 2021. Systematic review and meta-analysis of depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation among Ph.D. students. Sci. Rep. 11:14370
    [Google Scholar]
91. Schultz ME, Fronk GE, Jaume N, Magruder KP, Curtin JJ. 2022. Stressor-elicited smoking and craving during a smoking cessation attempt. J. Abnormal Psychol. 131:73–85
    [Google Scholar]
92. Sealy L, Saunders C, Blume J, Chalkley R. 2019. The GRE over the entire range of scores lacks predictive ability for PhD outcomes in the biomedical sciences. PLOS ONE 14:e0201634
    [Google Scholar]
93. Shim RS. 2021. Dismantling structural racism in psychiatry: a path to mental health equity. Am. J. Psychiatry 178:592–98
    [Google Scholar]
94. Simmons C, Conley MI, Gee DG, Baskin-Sommers A, Barch DM et al. 2021. Responsible use of open-access developmental data: the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Psychol. Sci. 32:866–70
    [Google Scholar]
95. Simms LJ, Wright AGC, Cicero D, Kotov R, Mullins-Sweatt SN et al. 2022. Development of measures for the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): a collaborative scale development project. Assessment 29:3–16
    [Google Scholar]
96. Singla DR, Kohrt BA, Murray LK, Anand A, Chorpita BF, Patel V. 2017. Psychological treatments for the world: lessons from low- and middle-income countries. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 13:149–81
    [Google Scholar]
97. Singleton KS, Murray DRK, Dukes AJ, Richardson LNS. 2021. A year in review: Are diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives fixing systemic barriers?. Neuron 109:213365–67
    [Google Scholar]
98. Stein DM, Lambert MJ. 1995. Graduate training in psychotherapy: Are therapy outcomes enhanced?. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 63:182–96
    [Google Scholar]
99. Strauman TJ. 2021. Training opportunities for challenge-focused career development in clinical psychology. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 28:128–30
    [Google Scholar]
100. Sverdlik A, Hall NC, McAlpine L, Hubbard K 2018. The PhD experience: a review of the factors influencing doctoral students’ completion, achievement, and well-being. Int. J. Dr. Stud. 13:361–88
     [Google Scholar]
101. Taffe MA, Gilpin NW 2021. Equity, diversity and inclusion: racial inequity in grant funding from the US National Institutes of Health. eLife 10:e65697
     [Google Scholar]
102. Teachman BA, McKay D, Barch DM, Prinstein MJ, Hollon SD, Chambless DL. 2019. How psychosocial research can help the National Institute of Mental Health achieve its grand challenge to reduce the burden of mental illnesses and psychological disorders. Am. Psychol. 74:415–31
     [Google Scholar]
103. Tilghman S, Alberts B, Colón-Ramos D, Dzirasa K, Kimble J, Varmus H. 2021. Concrete steps to diversify the scientific workforce. Science 372:133–35
     [Google Scholar]
104. Uhlhaas PJ, McGorry PD, Wood SJ. 2021. Toward a paradigm for youth mental health. JAMA Psychiatry 78:473–74
     [Google Scholar]
105. Univ. Calif.–Berkeley 2021. Future accreditation plan. University of California, Berkeley, Department of Psychology https://psychology.berkeley.edu/students/graduate-program/clinical-science-future-accreditation-plan
     [Google Scholar]
106. Univ. Wisc.–Madison School Med. Public Health 2021. Program structure and timeline. University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Medicine and Public Health https://www.med.wisc.edu/education/md-phd/program-structure-and-timeline/
107. Urbina-Garcia A. 2020. What do we know about university academics' mental health? A systematic literature review. Stress Health 36:563–85
     [Google Scholar]
108. Victor SE, Devendorf A, Lewis S, Rottenberg J, Muehlenkamp JJ et al. 2021a. Only human: mental health difficulties among clinical, counseling, and school psychology faculty and trainees. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. In press
     [Google Scholar]
109. Victor SE, Schleider JL, Ammerman BA, Bradford DE, Devendorf AR et al. 2021b. Leveraging the strengths of psychologists with lived experience of psychopathology. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. In press
     [Google Scholar]
110. Vos T, Lim SS, Abbafati C, Abbas KM, Abbasi M et al. 2020. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396:1204–22
     [Google Scholar]
111. Wang SB, Coppersmith DDL, Kleiman EM, Bentley KH, Millner AJ et al. 2021. A pilot study using frequent inpatient assessments of suicidal thinking to predict short-term postdischarge suicidal behavior. JAMA Netw. Open 4:e210591
     [Google Scholar]
112. Williams DR, Mohammed SA. 2009. Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research. J. Behav. Med. 32:20–47
     [Google Scholar]
113. Williams MT, Metzger IW, Leins C, DeLapp C. 2018a. Assessing racial trauma within a DSM–5 framework: the UConn Racial/Ethnic Stress & Trauma Survey. Pract. Innov. 3:242–60
     [Google Scholar]
114. Williams MT, Printz DMB, DeLapp RCT. 2018b. Assessing racial trauma with the Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale. Psychol. Violence 8:735–47
     [Google Scholar]
115. Woolston C. 2019. PhD poll reveals fear and joy, contentment and anguish. Nature 575:403–6
     [Google Scholar]