1932

Abstract

For more than three decades, developmental and life-course criminology has been a source of theoretical advancement, methodological innovation, and policy and practice guidance, bringing breadth and depth even to well-established areas of study, such as gangs. This review demonstrates how the developmental and life-course perspective on gangs can be further extended and better integrated within broader developments in criminology. Accordingly, we structure this review within the fourfold paradigm on human development that unites seemingly disparate areas in the study of gangs: () historical time and place, or the foregrounding of when and where you are; () linked lives, or the importance of dynamic multiplex relationships; () timing, or the age-grading of trajectories and transitions; and () human agency, or taking choice seriously. We conclude by outlining a vision that charts new directions to be addressed by the next generation of scholarship on gangs.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022222-035715
2024-01-26
2024-04-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/7/1/annurev-criminol-022222-035715.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022222-035715&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Alonso A. 2004. Racialized identities in the formation of Black gangs in Los Angeles. Urban Geogr. 25:765874
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Aspholm R. 2020. Views from the Streets: The Transformation of Gangs and Violence on Chicago's South Side New York: Columbia Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Augustyn MB, Ward JT, Krohn MD. 2017. Exploring intergenerational continuity in gang membership. J. Crime Justice 40:325274
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Barton MS, Valasik MA, Brault E, Tita G. 2020. “Gentefication” in the Barrio: examining the relationship between gentrification and homicide in East Los Angeles. Crime Delinquency 66:13–141888913
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Bishop AS, Hill KG, Gilman AB, Howell JC, Catalano RF, Hawkins JD. 2017. Developmental pathways of youth gang membership: a structural test of the social development model. J. Crime Justice 40:327596
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Bolden CL. 2020. Out of the Red: My Life of Gangs, Prison, and Redemption New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Braga AA, Kennedy DM. 2020. A Framework for Addressing Violence and Serious Crime: Focused Deterrence, Legitimacy, and Prevention Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Braga AA, Weisburd D, Turchan B. 2018. Focused deterrence strategies and crime control: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical evidence. Criminol. Public Policy 17:120550
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Brotherton DC. 2015. Youth Street Gangs: A Critical Appraisal New York: Routledge. , 1st ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Buchanan M, Simonsen ET, Krohn MD. 2019. Developmental and life-course perspectives on gangs. Criminol. Crim. Justice. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.423
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Carson DC, Melde C, Wiley SA, Esbensen F-A. 2017. School transitions as a turning point for gang status. J. Crime Justice 40:4396416
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Carson DC, Ray JV. 2019. Do psychopathic traits distinguish trajectories of gang membership?. Crim. Justice Behav. 46:9133755
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Carson DC, Vecchio JM. 2015. Leaving the gang: a review and thoughts on future research. See Decker & Pyrooz 2015 25775
  14. Chalfin A, LaForest M, Kaplan J. 2021. Can precision policing reduce gun violence? Evidence from “gang takedowns” in New York City. J. Policy Anal. Manag. 40:4104782
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Cullen FT. 2011. Beyond adolescence-limited criminology: choosing our future—The American Society of Criminology 2010 Sutherland Address. Criminology 49:287330
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Decker SH, Bynum T, Weisel D. 1998. A tale of two cities: gangs as organized crime groups. Justice Q. 15:3395425
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Decker SH, Curry GD. 2002. Gangs, gang homicides, and gang loyalty: organized crimes or disorganized criminals. J. Crim. Justice 30:434352
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Decker SH, Pyrooz DC, eds. 2015. The Handbook of Gangs Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell
  19. Decker SH, Pyrooz DC, Densley JA. 2022. On Gangs Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
  20. Decker SH, Pyrooz DC, Moule RKJ. 2014. Disengagement from gangs as role transitions. J. Res. Adolesc. 24:226883
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Decker SH, Van Winkle B. 1996. Life in the Gang: Family, Friends, and Violence Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Densley JA. 2013. How Gangs Work: An Ethnography of Youth Violence New York: Palgrave Macmillan
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Densley JA. 2014. It's gang life, but not as we know it: the evolution of gang business. Crime Delinquency 60:451746
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Densley JA. 2015. Joining the gang: a process of supply and demand. See Decker & Pyrooz 2015 23556
  25. Densley JA, Pyrooz DC. 2019. A signaling perspective on disengagement from gangs. Justice Q. 36:13158
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Densley JA, Pyrooz DC. 2020. The matrix in context: taking stock of police gang databases in London and beyond. Youth Justice 20:1–21130
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Dong B, Gibson CL, Krohn MD. 2015. Gang membership in a developmental and life-course perspective. See Decker & Pyrooz 2015 2858
  28. Durán R. 2013. Gang Life in Two Cities: An Insiders Journey New York: Columbia Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Elder GH Jr. 1985. Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, 1968–1980 Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Elder GH Jr. 1994. Time, human agency, and social change: perspectives on the life course. Social Psychol. Q. 57:415
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Elder GH Jr., Giele JZ. 2009. The Craft of Life Course Research New York: Guilford Press
  32. Emerson RM. 1976. Social exchange theory. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 2:33562
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Esbensen F-A, Huizinga D. 1993. Gangs, drugs, and delinquency in a survey of urban youth. Criminology 31:456589
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Fleisher MS. 1998. Dead End Kids: Gang Girls and the Boys They Know Madison, WI: Univ. Wis. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Fox BH, Jennings WG, Farrington DP. 2015. Bringing psychopathy into developmental and life-course criminology theories and research. J. Crim. Justice 43:427489
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Fraser A. 2017. Gangs and Crime: Critical Alternatives Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 1st ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Gilman AB, Hill KG, Hawkins JD. 2014a. Long-term consequences of adolescent gang membership for adult functioning. Am. J. Public Health 104:593845
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Gilman AB, Hill KG, Hawkins JD, Howell JC, Kosterman R. 2014b. The developmental dynamics of joining a gang in adolescence: patterns and predictors of gang membership. J. Res. Adolesc. 24:20419
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Giordano PC. 2003. Relationships in adolescence. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 29:25781
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Giordano PC. 2020. Continuing education: toward a life-course perspective on social learning. Criminology 58:2199225
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Giordano PC, Lonardo RA, Manning WD, Longmore MA. 2010. Adolescent romance and delinquency: a further exploration of Hirschi's “cold and brittle” relationships hypothesis. Criminology 48:491946
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Gordon RA, Rowe HL, Pardini D, Loeber R, White HR, Farrington DP. 2014. Serious delinquency and gang participation: combining and specializing in drug selling, theft, and violence. J. Res. Adolesc. 24:223551
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Gottfredson MR, Hirschi T. 2016. The criminal career perspective as an explanation of crime and a guide to crime control policy: the view from general theories of crime. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 53:340619
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Gravel J, Allison B, West-Fagan J, McBride M, Tita GE 2018. Birds of a feather fight together: status-enhancing violence, social distance and the emergence of homogenous gangs. J. Quant. Criminol. 34:189219
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Grigoryeva MS, Matsueda RL 2014. Rational choice, deterrence, and crime: sociological contributions. Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice G Bruinsma, D Weisburd 431627. New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Grund TU, Densley JA. 2015. Ethnic homophily and triad closure: mapping internal gang structure using exponential random graph models. J. Contemp. Crim. Justice 31:335470
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Hagedorn J. 2008. A World of Gangs: Armed Young Men and Gangsta Culture Minneapolis, MN: Univ. Minn. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Hagedorn JM. 1998. People and Folks: Gangs, Crime and the Underclass in a Rustbelt City Chicago: Lake View Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Hagedorn JM. 2015. The In$ane Chicago Way: The Daring Plan by Chicago Gangs to Create a Spanish Mafia Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Hashimi S, Wakefield S, Apel R. 2021. Sibling transmission of gang involvement. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 58:550444
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Horowitz R. 1983. Honor and the American Dream New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
  52. Howell JC, Egley A Jr. 2005. Moving risk factors into developmental theories of gang membership. Youth Violence Juv. Justice 3:33454
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hsiao Y, Leverso J, Papachristos AV. 2023. The corner, the crew, and the digital street: multiplex networks of gang online-offline conflict dynamics in the digital age. Am. Sociol. Rev. 88:470941
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Hughes LA, Short JF. 2005. Disputes involving youth street gang members: micro-social contexts. Criminology 43:14376
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Hureau DM, Braga AA. 2018. The trade in tools: the market for illicit guns in high-risk networks. Criminology 56:351045
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Hwang J, Sampson RJ. 2014. Divergent pathways of gentrification racial inequality and the social order of renewal in Chicago neighborhoods. Am. Sociol. Rev. 79:472651
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Hyatt JM, Densley JA, Roman CG. 2021. Social media and the variable impact of violence reduction interventions: re-examining focused deterrence in Philadelphia. Soc. Sci. 10:5147
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Jannetta J, Thompson PS, Robin L. 2023. Making sense of the models: continuities and differences across prominent gang/group gun violence intervention models. See Pyrooz et al. 2023
  59. Kahn RL, Antonucci TC. 1980. Convoys over the life course: attachment, roles, and social support. Life-Span Development and Behavior PB Baltes, OG Brim 25367. Cambridge, MA: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Katz CM, Webb VJ. 2006. Policing Gangs in America New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  61. Katz J. 2019. Hot potato criminology: ethnographers and the shame of poor people's crimes. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 2:2152
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Katz J, Jackson-Jacobs C. 2004. The criminologists’ gang. The Blackwell Companion to Criminology C Sumner 91124. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Kazemian L, Farrington DP, Piquero AR 2019. Developmental and life-course criminology. The Oxford Handbook of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology DP Farrington, L Kazemian, AR Piquero 310. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Kennedy DM. 2023. Violence prevention, law enforcement, and the received idea of “gang. .” See Pyrooz et al. 2023
  65. Kerig PK, Mendez L, Alexander A, Chen S 2023. Psychopathology as a cause or consequence of youth gang involvement. See Pyrooz et al. 2023
  66. Klein MW. 1995. The American Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence and Control New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Krohn MD, Thornberry TP. 2008. Longitudinal perspectives on adolescent street gangs. See Liberman 2008 12860
  68. Krohn MD, Ward JT, Thornberry TP, Lizotte AJ, Chu R. 2011. The cascading effects of adolescent gang involvement across the life course. Criminology 49:49911028
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Lacourse E, Nagin D, Tremblay RE, Vitaro F, Claes M. 2003. Developmental trajectories of boys’ delinquent group membership and facilitation of violent behaviors during adolescence. Dev. Psychopathol. 15:118397
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Lahey BB, Gordon RA, Loeber R, Stouthamer-Loeber M, Farrington DP. 1999. Boys who join gangs: a prospective study of predictors of first gang entry. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 27:426176
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Lane J. 2018. The Digital Street New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  72. Lane J, Ramirez FA, Pearce KE. 2018. Guilty by visible association: socially mediated visibility in gang prosecutions. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 23:635469
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Langton L. 2010. Gang units in large local law enforcement agencies, 2007 Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 230071 US Dep. Justice Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Laub JH, Rowan ZR, Sampson RJ 2019. The age-graded theory of informal social control. The Oxford Handbook of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology DP Farrington, L Kazemian, AR Piquero 295322. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lauger TR, Densley JA. 2018. Broadcasting badness: violence, identity, and performance in the online gang rap scene. Justice Q. 35:581641
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Leverso J, Hess C. 2021. From the hood to the home: masculinity maturation of Chicago street gang members. Sociol. Perspect. 64:6120623
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Leverso J, Hsiao Y. 2020. Gangbangin on the [face]book: understanding online interactions of Chicago Latina/o gangs. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 58:323968
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Leverso J, O'Neill K 2022. Youth gangs and victimization: an investigation of the impact of gang dynamics on experiences of victimization. Deviant Behav. 43:9110319
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Leverso J, Matsueda RL. 2019. Gang organization and gang identity: an investigation of enduring gang membership. J. Quant. Criminol. 35:797829
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Liberman A. 2008. The Long View of Crime: A Synthesis of Longitudinal Research New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Matsueda RL, Lanfear CC. 2021. Collective action, rational choice, and gang delinquency: appreciating Short and Strodtbeck ([1965]1974). Social Bridges and Contexts in Criminology and Sociology: Reflections on the Intellectual Legacy of James F. Short, Jr. LA Hughes, LM Broidy 15168. Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Maxson CL. 1998. Gang members on the move Off. Juv. Justice Delinquency Prev. Rep., Off. Justice Progr. Washington, DC: https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles/171153.pdf
  83. Maxson CL, Curry GD, Howell JC. 2002. Youth gang homicides in the United States in the 1990s. Responding to Gangs: Evaluation and Research W Reed, SH Decker 10737. Washington, DC: Off. Justice Progr.
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Maxson CL, Matsuda KN, Hennigan K. 2011.. “ Deterrability” among gang and nongang juvenile offenders: Are gang members more (or less) deterrable than other juvenile offenders?. Crime Delinquency 57:451643
    [Google Scholar]
  85. McCarthy B, Hagan J. 1995. Getting into street crime: the structure and process of criminal embeddedness. Soc. Sci. Res. 24:16395
    [Google Scholar]
  86. McGloin JM, Collins ME. 2015. Micro-level processes of the gang. See Decker & Pyrooz 2015 27693
  87. Mears DP, Cochran JC, Siennick SE 2013. Life-course perspectives and prisoner reentry. Handbook of Life-Course Criminology CL Gibson, MD Krohn 31733. New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Melde C, Esbensen F-A. 2011. Gang membership as a turning point in the life course. Criminology 49:251352
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Melde C, Esbensen F-A. 2014. The relative impact of gang status transitions: identifying the mechanisms of change in delinquency. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 51:334976
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Miller J. 2001. One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs, and Gender New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Moen P, Hernandez E 2009. Social convoys: studying linked lives in time, context, and motion. The Craft of Life Course Research GH Elder Jr., JZ Giele 25879. New York: Guilford Press
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Moffitt TE. 1993. Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychol. Rev. 100:4674701
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Moore CL, Stuart F. 2022. Gang research in the twenty-first century. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 5:299320
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Moore JW. 1978. Homeboys: Gangs, Drugs, and Prison in the Barrios of Los Angeles Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Moore JW. 1991. Going Down to the Barrio: Homeboys and Homegirls in Change Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Moule RKJ, Decker SH, Pyrooz DC. 2013. Social capital, the life-course, and gangs. Handbook of Life-Course Criminology CL Gibson, MD Krohn 14358. New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Nagin DS, Odgers CL. 2010. Group-based trajectory modeling (nearly) two decades later. J. Quant. Criminol. 26:444553
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Neil R, Sampson RJ. 2021. The birth lottery of history: arrest over the life course of multiple cohorts coming of age, 1995–2018. Am. J. Sociol. 126:5112778
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Nguyen H, Loughran TA. 2018. On the measurement and identification of turning points in criminology. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1:33558
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Ouellet M, Bouchard M, Charette Y. 2019. One gang dies, another gains? The network dynamics of criminal group persistence. Criminology 57:1533
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Padilla F. 1992. The Gang as an American Enterprise New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
  102. Papachristos AV, Brazil N, Cheng T. 2018. Understanding the crime gap: violence and inequality in an American city. City Commun. 17:4105174
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Papachristos AV, Hureau DM, Braga AA. 2013. The corner and the crew: the influence of geography and social networks on gang violence. Am. Sociol. Rev. 78:341747
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Papachristos AV, Leverso J, Hureau DM. 2023. A relational approach to street gangs. See Pyrooz et al. 2023
  105. Paternoster R, Bushway S. 2009. Desistance and the “feared self”: toward an identity theory of criminal desistance. J. Crim. Law Criminol. 99:4110356
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Patton DU, Brunton D-W, Dixon A, Miller RJ, Leonard P, Hackman R. 2017. Stop and frisk online: theorizing everyday racism in digital policing in the use of social media for identification of criminal conduct and associations. Soc. Media Soc. 3:3 https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117733344
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Patton DU, Pyrooz D, Decker S, Frey WR, Leonard P. 2019. When Twitter fingers turn to trigger fingers: a qualitative study of social media-related gang violence. Int. J. Bullying Prev. 1:320517
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Piquero AR, Farrington DP, Blumstein A. 2003. The criminal career paradigm. Crime Justice 30:359506
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Posick C, Rocque M. 2018. Great Debates in Criminology Abingdon, UK: Routledge
  110. Pratt TC. 2016. A self-control/life-course theory of criminal behavior. Eur. J. Criminol. 13:112946
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Pratt TC, Cullen FT, Blevins KR, Daigle LE, Madensen TD. 2006. The empirical status of deterrence theory: a meta-analysis. Tak. Stock Status Criminol. Theory 15:36796
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Putnam RD. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community New York: Simon Schuster
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Pyrooz DC. 2014.. “ From your first cigarette to your last dyin’ day”: the patterning of gang membership in the life-course. J. Quant. Criminol. 30:234972
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Pyrooz DC. 2022. The prison and the gang. Crime Justice 51:1237306
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Pyrooz DC, Decker SH, Moule RKJ. 2015. Criminal and routine activities in online settings: gangs, offenders, and the Internet. Justice Q. 32:347199
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Pyrooz DC, Densley JA, Leverso J, eds. 2023. The Oxford Handbook of Gangs and Society New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  117. Pyrooz DC, McGloin JM, Decker SH. 2017. Parenthood as a turning point in the life course for male and female gang members: a study of within-individual changes in gang membership and criminal behavior. Criminology 55:486999
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Pyrooz DC, Melde C, Coffman DL, Meldrum RC. 2021. Selection, stability, and spuriousness: testing Gottfredson and Hirschi's propositions to reinterpret street gangs in self-control perspective. Criminology 59:222453
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Pyrooz DC, Mitchell MM. 2015. Little gang research, big gang research. See Decker & Pyrooz 2015 2858
  120. Pyrooz DC, Sweeten G. 2015. Gang membership between ages 5 and 17 years in the United States. J. Adolesc. Health 56:441419
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Pyrooz DC, Sweeten G, Piquero AR. 2013. Continuity and change in gang membership and gang embeddedness. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 50:223971
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Pyrooz DC, Turanovic JJ, Decker SH, Wu J. 2016. Taking stock of the relationship between gang membership and offending: a meta-analysis. Crim. Justice Behav. 43:336597
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Raby C, Jones F. 2016. Identifying risks for male street gang affiliation: a systematic review and narrative synthesis. J. Forensic Psychiatry Psychol. 27:560144
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Ridgeway G, Grogger J, Moyer RA, MacDonald JM. 2018. Effect of gang injunctions on crime: a study of Los Angeles from 1988–2014. J. Quant. Criminol. 35:51741
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Rosen E, Venkatesh S. 2007. Legal innovation and the control of gang behavior. Annu. Rev. Law Soc. Sci. 3:25570
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Sampson RJ, Laub JH. 1992. Crime and deviance in the life course. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 18:6384
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Sampson RJ, Laub JH. 1993. Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Sampson RJ, Laub JH. 1997. A life-course theory of cumulative disadvantage and the stability of delinquency. Dev. Theor. Crime Delinquency 7:13361
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Sampson RJ, Laub JH. 2016. Turning points and the future of life-course criminology: reflections on the 1986 criminal careers report. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 53:332135
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Sampson RJ, Smith LA. 2021. Rethinking criminal propensity and character: cohort inequalities and the power of social change. Crime Justice 50:1376
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Sampson RJ, Wilson WJ, Katz H. 2018. Reassessing “Toward a Theory of Race, Crime, and Urban Inequality”: enduring and new challenges in 21st century America. Du Bois Rev. Soc. Sci. Res. Race 15:11334
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Sánchez-Jankowski M. 1991. Islands in the Street: Gangs and American Urban Society Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Short JF Jr., Strodtbeck FL. 1965. Group Process and Gang Delinquency Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  134. Sierra-Arevalo M, Papachristos AV. 2015. Social network analysis and gangs. See Decker & Pyrooz 2015 15777
  135. Simi P, Sporer K, Bubolz BF. 2016. Narratives of childhood adversity and adolescent misconduct as precursors to violent extremism: a life-course criminological approach. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 53:453663
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Skolnick JH, Correl T, Navarro E, Rabb R. 1990. The social structure of street drug dealing. Am. J. Police 9:123
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Smetana JG, Campione-Barr N, Metzger A. 2006. Adolescent development in interpersonal and societal contexts. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 57:25584
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Smith CM. 2014. The influence of gentrification on gang homicides in Chicago neighborhoods, 1994 to 2005. Crime Delinquency 60:456991
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Storrod ML, Densley JA. 2017.. “ Going viral” and “going country”: the expressive and instrumental activities of street gangs on social media. J. Youth Stud. 20:667796
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Stuart F. 2020. Ballad of the Bullet: Gangs, Drill Music, and the Power of Online Infamy Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Sweeten G, Pyrooz DC, Piquero AR. 2013. Disengaging from gangs and desistance from crime. Justice Q. 30:3469500
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Thomas KJ. 2023. Rational choice, gang membership, and crime: moving actors and choice to the center stage. See Pyrooz et al. 2023
  143. Thomas KJ, Baumer E, Loughran TA. 2022. Structural predictors of choice: testing a multilevel rational choice theory of crime. Criminology 60:460636
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Thomas KJ, Pogarsky G, Loughran TA. 2021. Paternoster on human agency and crime: a rejoinder to critics on his behalf. J. Dev. Life-Course Criminol. 7:352442
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Thornberry TP, Krohn MD, Lizotte AJ, Chard-Wierschem D. 1993. The role of juvenile gangs in facilitating delinquent behavior. J Res. Crime Delinquency 30:15587
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Thornberry TP, Krohn MD, Lizotte AJ, Smith CA, Tobin K. 2003. Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  147. Thrasher FM. 1927. The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Tita GE, Radil SM. 2011. Spatializing the social networks of gangs to explore patterns of violence. J. Quant. Criminol. 27:452145
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Valasik M, Reid SE. 2021. East side story: disaggregating gang homicides in East Los Angeles. Soc. Sci. 10:248
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Venkatesh SA. 1997. The social organization of street gang activity in an urban ghetto. Am. J. Sociol. 103:182111
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Vigil JD. 1988. Barrio Gangs: Street Life and Identity in Southern California Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Wojciechowski T. 2021. PTSD as a risk factor for chronic gang membership during adolescence and early adulthood: a group-based trajectory modeling approach. Crime Delinquency 67:10153660
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022222-035715
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error