1932

Abstract

There is now a sizable literature on connections between homelessness, crime, and criminal legal system contact. We review studies on these relationships, focusing mostly on links between the adversity that often characterizes homelessness—the need for shelter, food, and income—and offending, victimization, and involvement with the criminal legal system. We concentrate on multivariate studies from the United States and Canada and consider research on youth and adults. We begin with a short discussion of some of the challenges of studying these relationships. We follow our review of research on homeless conditions with a summary of research that has used data from homeless samples to advance a broad array of explanations of crime; a collection that includes strain, routine activities and lifestyle exposure, differential association, social control, rational choice, life course, and criminal capital theories.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-020934
2024-01-26
2024-04-30
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/7/1/annurev-criminol-022422-020934.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-020934&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Agnew R. 2006. Pressured into Crime: An Overview of General Strain Theory Los Angeles: Roxbury Publ.
  2. Alm S. 2018. Isolating the effect of eviction on criminal convictions. Acta Sociol. 61:326382
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Alm S, Bäckman O. 2020.. “ When it rains, it pours”: housing evictions and criminal convictions in Sweden. Eur. J. Criminol. 19:461231
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Anderson E. 1999. Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City. New York: W.W. Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Anthony ER, Fischer RL. 2016. Surveying homeless and unstably housed youth: methodological considerations when estimating the prevalence and characteristics of the population. Fam. Soc. 97:433035
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Augustyn MB, McGloin JM, Pyrooz DC. 2019. Does gang membership pay? Illegal and legal earnings through emerging adulthood. Criminology 57:345280
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Baggett TP, Singer DE, Rao SR, O'Connell J, Bharel M et al. 2011. Food insufficiency and health services utilization in a national sample of homeless adults. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 26:662734
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Baron SW. 2003. Self-control, social consequences, and criminal behavior: street youth and the general theory of crime. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 40:440325
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Baron SW. 2004. General strain, street youth and crime: a test of Agnew's revised strain theory. Criminology 42:245784
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Baron SW. 2006. Street youth, strain theory, and crime. J. Crim. Justice 34:220923
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Baron SW. 2007. Street youth, gender, financial strain, and crime: exploring Broidy and Agnew's extension to general strain theory. Deviant Behav. 28:3273302
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Baron SW. 2008. Street youth, unemployment, and crime: Is it that simple? Using general strain theory to untangle the relationship. Can. J. Criminol. Crim. Justice 50:4399434
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Baron SW. 2009. Street youths’ violent responses to violent personal, vicarious, and anticipated strain. J. Crim. Justice 37:5044251
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Baron SW. 2011. Street youths and the proximate and contingent causes of instrumental crime: untangling anomie theory. Justice Q. 28:341336
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Baron SW. 2013. When formal sanctions encourage violent offending: how violent peers and violent codes undermine deterrence. Justice Q. 30:592655
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Baron SW. 2017. It's more than the code: exploring the factors that moderate the street code's relationship with violence. Justice Q. 34:3491516
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Baron SW. 2019a. Police strain, negative emotions, criminal propensity, and criminal coping. Am. J. Crim. Justice 44:693861
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Baron SW. 2019b. Strain, criminal propensity, and violence: examining the role of the composite moderator in Agnew's extension to GST. Crime Delinquency 65:680121
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Baron SW, Forde DR. 2007. Street youth crime: a test of control balance theory. Justice Q. 24:233555
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Baron SW, Forde DR. 2020. Childhood trauma, criminogenic social schemas, and violent crime. Deviant Behav. 41:89911014
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Baron SW, Forde DR, Kay FM. 2007. Self-control, risky lifestyles, and situation: the role of opportunity and context in the general theory. J. Crim. Justice 35:211936
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Baron SW, Hartnagel TF. 1997. Attributions, affect, and crime: street youths’ reactions to unemployment. Criminology 35:340934
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Baron SW, Hartnagel TF. 1998. Street youth and criminal violence. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 35:216692
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Baron SW, Hartnagel TF. 2002. Street youth and labor market strain. J. Crim. Justice 30:651933
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Beck RC, Szlapinski J, Pacheco N, Laghaei SS, Isard R et al. 2022. Violence and victimisation in the lives of persons experiencing homelessness who use methamphetamine: a scoping review. Health Soc. Care Commun. 30:5161936
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Beckett K, Herbert S. 2010. Banished: The New Social Control in Urban America New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Berg MT, Mulford CF. 2020. Reappraising and redirecting research on the victim-offender overlap. Trauma Violence Abuse 21:11630
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Bernard J, Daňková H, Vašát P. 2018. Ties, sites and irregularities: pitfalls and benefits in using respondent-driven sampling for surveying a homeless population. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 21:560318
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Birkbeck C, LaFree G. 1993. The situational analysis of crime and deviance. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 19:11337
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Boyer CB, Greenberg L, Chutuape K, Walker B, Monte D et al. 2017. Exchange of sex for drugs or money in adolescents and young adults: an examination of sociodemographic factors, HIV-related risk, and community context. J. Commun. Health 42:190100
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Chapple CL, Johnson KD, Whitbeck LB. 2004. Gender and arrest among homeless and runaway youth. Youth Violence Juv. Justice 2:212947
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Chen X, Thrane L, Whitbeck LB, Johnson K. 2006. Mental disorders, comorbidity, and postrunaway arrests among homeless and runaway adolescents. J. Res. Adolesc. 16:3379402
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Chen X, Thrane L, Whitbeck LB, Johnson KD, Hoyt DR. 2007. Onset of conduct disorder, use of delinquent subsistence strategies, and street victimization among homeless and runaway adolescents in the Midwest. J. Interpers. Violence 22:9115683
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Chen X, Tyler KA, Whitbeck LB, Hoyt DR. 2004. Early sexual abuse, street adversity, and drug use among female homeless and runaway adolescents in the Midwest. J. Drug Issues 34:1121
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Clarke RVG. 1980. Situational crime prevention: theory and practice. Br. J. Criminol. 20:113647
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Clifasefi SL, Malone DK, Collins SE. 2013. Exposure to project-based Housing First is associated with reduced jail time and bookings. Int. J. Drug Policy 24:429196
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Cohen LE, Felson M. 1979. Social change and crime rate trends: a routine activity approach. Am. J. Sociol. 44:4588608
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Cohen LE, Machalek R. 1988. A general theory of expropriative crime: an evolutional ecological approach. Am. J. Sociol. 94:346599
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Collins CR, Stuart F, Janulis P. 2022. Policing gentrification or policing displacement? Testing the relationship between order maintenance policing and neighbourhood change in Los Angeles. Urban Stud. 59:241433
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Crawford DM, Whitbeck LB, Hoyt DR. 2011. Propensity for violence among homeless and runaway adolescents: an event history analysis. Crime Delinquency 57:695068
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Cronley C, Jeong S, Davis JB, Madden E. 2015. Effects of homelessness and child maltreatment on the likelihood of engaging in property and violent crime during adulthood. J. Hum. Behav. Soc. Environ. 25:3192203
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Davis RW. 2022. Homelessness and pretrial detention predict unfavorable outcomes in the plea bargaining process. Law Hum. Behav. 46:320113
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Desmond M, Shollenberger T. 2015. Forced displacement from rental housing: prevalence and neighborhood consequences. Demography 52:5175172
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Edalati H, Nicholls TL. 2019. Childhood maltreatment and the risk for criminal justice involvement and victimization among homeless individuals: a systematic review. Trauma Violence Abuse 20:331530
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Ellsworth JT. 2019. Street crime victimization among homeless adults: a review of the literature. Vict. Offenders 14:196118
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Ellsworth JT. 2022. Housing and criminality: the effect of housing placement on arrests among chronically homeless adults. J. Soc. Distress Homelessness 31:213041
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Ferguson KM, Bender K, Thompson S. 2015. Gender, coping strategies, homelessness stressors, and income generation among homeless young adults in three cities. Soc. Sci. Med. 135:4755
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Ferguson KM, Bender K, Thompson S. 2016. Predicting illegal income generation among homeless male and female young adults: understanding strains and responses to strains. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 63:1019
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Ferguson KM, Bender K, Thompson S, Maccio E, Xie B. 2011a. Social control correlates of arrest behavior among homeless youth in five U.S. cities. Violence Vict. 26:564868
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Ferguson KM, Bender K, Thompson S, Xie B, Pollio D. 2011b. Correlates of street-survival behaviors in homeless young adults in four U.S. cities. Am. J. Orthopsychiatr. 81:34019
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Fitzpatrick KM, Myrstol B. 2011. The jailing of America's homeless: evaluating the rabble management thesis. Crime Delinquency 57:229197
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Flath N, Tobin K, King K, Lee A, Latkin C. 2019. Maximizing order or harm? Arrests among a social network of people who inject drugs in a large urban city. J. Ethn. Crim. Justice 17:2186202
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Gaetz S. 2004. Safe streets for whom? Homeless youth, social exclusion, and criminal victimization. Can. J. Criminol. Crim. Justice 46:442356
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Garcia-Grossman I, Kaplan L, Valle K, Guzman D, Williams B et al. 2022. Factors associated with incarceration in older adults experiencing homelessness: results from the HOPE HOME study. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 37:5108896
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Garland TS, Richards T, Cooney M. 2010. Victims hidden in plain sight: the reality of victimization among the homeless. Crim. Justice Stud. 23:4285301
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Gibbons DC. 1971. Observations on the study of crime causation. Am. J. Sociol. 77:226278
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Gomory H, Desmond M. 2023. Neighborhoods of last resort: how landlord strategies concentrate violent crime. Criminology 61:227094
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Gottfredson MR, Hirschi T. 1990. A General Theory of Crime Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press
  59. Gottlieb A, Moose JW. 2018. The effect of eviction on maternal criminal justice involvement. Socius 4:112
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Grasmick HG, Tittle CR, Bursik RJ, Arneklev BJ. 1993. Testing the core empirical implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 30:1529
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Greene JM, Ennett ST, Ringwalt CL. 1999. Prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youth. Am. J. Public Health 89:914069
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Hagan J, McCarthy B. 1992. Streetlife and delinquency. Br. J. Sociol. 43:453361
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Hagan J, McCarthy B. 1997a. Intergenerational sanction sequences and trajectories of street-crime amplification. Stress and Adversity over the Life Course: Trajectories and Turning Points I Gotlib, B Wheaton 7390. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Hagan J, McCarthy B. 1997b. Mean Streets: Youth Crime and Homelessness New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Hayle S, Wortley S, Tanner J. 2016. Race, street life, and policing: implications for racial profiling. Can. J. Criminol. Crim. Justice 58:332253
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Heerde JA, Hemphill SA. 2014. A systematic review of associations between perpetration of physically violent behaviors and property offenses, victimization and use of substances among homeless youth. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 44:26577
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Heerde JA, Hemphill SA. 2016. Stealing and being stolen from: perpetration of property offenses and property victimization among homeless youth—a systematic review. Youth Soc. 48:2265300
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Heerde JA, Hemphill SA, Scholes-Balog KE. 2013. ‘Fighting’ for survival: a systematic review of physically violent behavior perpetrated and experienced by homeless young people. Aggress. Violent Behav. 19:15066
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Heerde JA, Scholes-Balog KE, Hemphill SA. 2015. Associations between youth homelessness, sexual offenses, sexual victimization, and sexual risk behaviors: a systematic literature review. Arch. Sex. Behav. 44:1181212
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Herring C. 2019. Complaint-oriented policing: regulating homelessness in public space. Am. Sociol. Rev. 84:5769800
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Herring C, Yarbrough D, Alatorre LM. 2020. Pervasive penalty: how the criminalization of poverty perpetuates homelessness. Soc. Probl. 67:113149
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Hindelang MJ, Gottfredson MR, Garofalo J. 1978. Victims of Personal Crime: An Empirical Foundation for a Theory of Personal Victimization Cambridge, MA: Ballinger
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Hirschi T. 1969. Causes of Delinquency Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  74. Hobbs SD, Bederian-Gardner D, Ogle CM, Bakanosky S, Narr R, Goodman GS. 2021. Foster youth and at-risk non-foster youth: a propensity score and structural equation modeling analysis. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 126:106034
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Hoy C, Barker B, Regan J, Dong H, Richardson L et al. 2016. Elevated risk of incarceration among street-involved youth who initiate drug dealing. Harm Reduct. J. 13:32
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Hoyt DR, Ryan KD, Cauce AM. 1999. Personal victimization in a high-risk environment: homeless and runaway adolescents. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 36:437192
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Hsu H-T, Fulginiti A, Petering R, Barman-Adhikari A, Bedell K et al. 2021. Understanding the correlates of firearm violence involvement among young adults experiencing homelessness: a 7-city study. Am. J. Prev. Med. 61:458590
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Ivanich JD, Warner TD. 2018. Seen or unseen? The role of race in police contact among homeless youth. Justice Q. 36:581640
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Jeffery CR. 1971. Crime Prevention through Environmental Design Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
  80. Kaestle CE. 2012. Selling and buying sex: a longitudinal study of risk and protective factors in adolescence. Prev. Sci. 13:331422
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Katz J. 1988. Seductions of Crime New York: Basic Books
  82. Kennedy MC, McNeil R, Milloy M-J, Dong H, Kerr T, Hayashi K. 2017. Residential eviction and exposure to violence among people who inject drugs in Vancouver, Canada. Int. J. Drug Policy 41:5964
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Kirk EM. 2021. Untangling eviction, disadvantage, race, and social processes: neighborhood factors influencing crime. Crime Delinquency 68:4594612
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Knowles A, Rowan Z, Frick PJ, Steinberg L, Cauffman E. 2021. Evading detection during adolescence: the role of criminal capital and psychosocial factors. Justice Q. 38:224975
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Kort-Butler LA, Tyler KA. 2012. A cluster analysis of service utilization and incarceration among homeless youth. Soc. Sci. Res. 41:361223
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Kushel MB, Evans JL, Perry S, Robertson MJ, Moss AR. 2003. No door to lock: victimization among homeless and marginally housed persons. Arch. Intern. Med. 163:20249299
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Lea J, Young J. 1984. What Is to Be Done About Law and Order? London: Pluto Press
  88. Lee BA, Schreck CJ. 2005.. Danger on the streets: marginality and victimization among homeless people. Am. Behav. Sci. 48:8105581
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Lee BA, Tyler KA, Wright JD. 2010. The new homelessness revisited. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 36:50121
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Loughran TA, Nguyen H, Piquero AR, Fagan J. 2013. The returns to criminal capital. Am. Sociol. Rev. 78:692548
    [Google Scholar]
  91. McCarthy B. 1996. The attitudes and actions of others: tutelage and Sutherland's theory of differential association. Br. J. Criminol. 36:113551
    [Google Scholar]
  92. McCarthy B, Felmlee D, Hagan J. 2004. Girl friends are better: gender, context and crime. Criminology 42:480536
    [Google Scholar]
  93. McCarthy B, Hagan J. 1991. Homelessness: a criminogenic situation?. Br. J. Criminol. 31:4393410
    [Google Scholar]
  94. McCarthy B, Hagan J. 1992a. Mean streets: the theoretical significance of situational delinquency among homeless youths. Am. J. Soc. 98:3597627
    [Google Scholar]
  95. McCarthy B, Hagan J. 1992b. Surviving on the street: the experiences of homeless youth. J. Adolesc. Res. 7:441230
    [Google Scholar]
  96. McCarthy B, Hagan J. 1995. Getting into crime: the structure and process of criminal embeddedness. Soc. Sci. Res. 24:16395
    [Google Scholar]
  97. McCarthy B, Hagan J. 2001. When crime pays: capital, competence and criminal success. Soc. Forces 79:3103559
    [Google Scholar]
  98. McCarthy B, Hagan J. 2005. Danger and the decision to offend. Soc. Forces 83:3106596
    [Google Scholar]
  99. McCarthy B, Hagan J, Cohen LE. 1998. Uncertainty, cooperation and crime: understanding the decision to co-offend. Soc. Forces 77:115584
    [Google Scholar]
  100. McCarthy B, Hagan J, Martin MJ. 2002. In and out of harm's way: violent victimization and the social capital of fictive street families. Criminology 40:440135
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Meinbresse M, Brinkley-Rubinstein L, Grassette A, Benson J et al. 2014. Exploring the experiences of violence among individuals who are homeless using a consumer-led approach. Violence Vict. 29:112236
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Merton RK. 1938. Social structure and anomie. Am. Sociol. Rev. 3:567282
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Moon MW, Binson D, Page-Shafer K, Díaz R. 2001. Correlates of HIV risk in a random sample of street youths in San Francisco. J. Assoc. Nurses AIDS Care 12:61827
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Nguyen H. 2020. On the conceptualization of criminal capital. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 57:2182216
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Nguyen H, Bouchard M. 2013. Need, connections, or competence? Criminal achievement among adolescent offenders. Justice Q. 30:14483
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Nguyen H, Loughran TA, Paternoster R, Fagan J, Piquero AR. 2017. Institutional placement and illegal earnings: explaining the crime school hypothesis. J. Quant. Criminol. 33:220735
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Nyamathi AM, Leake B, Gelberg L. 2000. Sheltered versus nonsheltered homeless women. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 15:56572
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Omura JD, Wood E, Nguyen P, Kerr T, DeBeck K. 2014. Incarceration among street-involved youth in a Canadian study: implications for health and policy interventions. Int. J. Drug Policy 25:229196
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Ouellet F, Bouchard M. 2017. Only a matter of time? The role of criminal competence in avoiding arrest. Justice Q. 34:4699726
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Ragan DT, Osgood DW, Kreager DA. 2022. Impulsivity, peers, and delinquency: a dynamic social network approach. J. Quant. Criminol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-022-09547-8
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Reinhard D 2023. The nature and frequency of homeless contacts with the police. J. Soc. Distress Homelessness. https://doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2023.2170203
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Richter F, Coulton C, Urban A, Steh S. 2021. An integrated data system lens into evictions and their effects. Hous. Policy Debate 31:3–576284
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Robinson T. 2019. No right to rest: police enforcement patterns and quality of life consequences of the criminalization of homelessness. Urban Aff. 55:14173
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Roy L, Crocker AG, Nicholls TL, Latimer EA, Ayllon AR. 2014. Criminal behavior and victimization among homeless individuals with severe mental illness: a systematic review. Psychiatr. Serv. 65:6707839
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Semenza DC, Stansfield R, Grosholz JM, Link NW. 2022. Eviction and crime: a neighborhood analysis in Philadelphia. . Crime Delinquency 68:470732
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Snow D, Baker S, Anderson L. 1989. Criminality and homeless men: an empirical assessment. Soc. Probl. 36:553249
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Stein JA, Milburn NG, Zane JI, Rotheram-Borus MJ. 2009. Paternal and maternal influences on problem behaviors among homeless and runaway youth. Am. J. Orthopsychiatr. 79:13950
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Stuart F. 2016. Down, Out, and Under Arrest: Policing and Everyday Life in Skid Row Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Sutherland EH. 1947. Principles of Criminology Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. , 4th ed..
  120. Terrell NE. 1997. Street life: aggravated and sexual assaults among homeless and runaway adolescents. Youth Soc. 28:326790
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Thrane L, Chen X, Johnson K, Whitbeck LB. 2008. Predictors of police contact among Midwestern homeless and runaway youth. Youth Violence Juv. Justice 6:322739
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Thrane LE, Hoyt DR, Whitbeck LB, Yoder KA. 2006. Impact of family abuse on running away, deviance, and street victimization among homeless rural and urban youth. Child Abuse Neglect 30:10111728
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Thrane LE, Yoder KA, Chen X. 2011. The influence of running away on the risk of female sexual assault in the subsequent year. Violence Vict. 26:681629
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Ti L, Wood E, Shannon K, Feng C, Kerr T. 2012. Police confrontations among street-involved youth in a Canadian setting. Int. J. Drug Policy 24:14651
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Tittle CR. 1995. Control Balance: Toward a General Theory of Deviance. New York: Westview Press
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Tompsett CJ, Toro PA. 2010. Predicting overt and covert antisocial behaviors: parents, peers, and homelessness. J. Commun. Psychol. 38:4419540
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Tong MS, Kaplan LM, Guzman D, Ponath C, Kushel MB. 2021. Persistent homelessness and violent victimization among older adults in the HOPE HOME study. J. Interpers. Violence 36:17–18851937
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Tyler KA. 2008. A comparison of risk factors for sexual victimization among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual homeless young adults. Violence Vict. 23:5586602
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Tyler KA. 2009. Risk factors for trading sex among homeless young adults. Arch. Sex. Behav. 38:229097
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Tyler KA, Beal MR. 2010. The high-risk environment of homeless young adults: consequences for physical and sexual victimization. Violence Vict. 25:110115
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Tyler KA, Gervais SJ, Davidson MM. 2013. The relationship between victimization and substance use among homeless and runaway female adolescents. J. Interpers. Violence 28:347493
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Tyler KA, Hoyt DR, Whitbeck LB. 2000. The effects of early sexual abuse on later sexual victimization among female homeless and runaway adolescents. J. Interpers. Violence 15:323550
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Tyler KA, Hoyt DR, Whitbeck LB, Cauce AM. 2001. The effects of a high-risk environment on the sexual victimization of homeless and runaway youth. Violence Vict. 16:444155
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Tyler KA, Kort-Butler LA, Swendener A. 2014. The effect of victimization, mental health, and protective factors on crime and illicit drug use among homeless young adults. Violence Vict. 29:234862
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Ulloa E, Salazar M, Monjaras L. 2016. Prevalence and correlates of sex exchange among a nationally representative sample of adolescents and young adults. J. Child Sex. Abuse 25:552437
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Vitale AS. 2010. The Safer Cities Initiative and the removal of the homeless: reducing crime or promoting gentrification on Los Angeles’ Skid Row. Criminol. Public Policy 9:486774
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Wachter K, Thompson S, Bender KA, Ferguson KM. 2015. Predictors of multiple arrests among homeless young adults: gender differences. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 49:3238
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Weerman FM. 2011. Delinquent peers in context: a longitudinal network analysis of selection and influence effects. Criminology 49:125386
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Wenzel SL, Koegel P, Gelberg L. 2000. Antecedents of physical and sexual victimization among homeless women: a comparison to homeless men. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 28:336790
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Wenzel SL, Leake BD, Gelberg L. 2001. Risk factors for major violence among homeless women. J. Interpers. Violence 16:873952
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Whitbeck LB, Chen X, Hoyt DR, Tyler KA, Johnson KD. 2004. Mental disorder, subsistence strategies, and victimization among gay, lesbian, and bisexual homeless and runaway adolescents. J. Sex Res. 41:432942
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Whitbeck LB, Hoyt DR, Yoder KA, Cause AM, Paradise M. 2001. Deviant behavior and victimization among homeless and runaway adolescents. J. Interpers. Violence 16:111175204
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Yoder JR, Bender K, Thompson SJ, Ferguson KM, Haffejee B. 2014. Explaining homeless youths’ criminal justice interactions: childhood trauma or surviving life on the streets?. Commun. Ment. Health J. 50:213544
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Yoder KA, Muñoz EA, Whitbeck LB, Hoyt DR, McMorris BJ. 2005. Arrests among homeless and runaway youths: the effects of race and gender. J. Crime Justice 28:13558
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Youngmin Y, Wheeler AP. 2019. Using risk terrain modeling to predict homeless related crime in Los Angeles, California. Appl. Geogr. 109:102039
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-020934
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-020934
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error