1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Criminology
  4. Volume 4, 2021
  5. Article

Annual Review of Criminology

Volume 4, 2021

Life Sentences and Perpetual Confinement

Abstract

The past 40 years have been a time of great change in life sentencing, during which the use of life sentences has dramatically grown and the quality of life sentences has markedly hardened. The rise of life without parole in the United States is a particularly recognizable development, but life sentencing has increased worldwide, and the use of other forms of punishment that hold people in prison until death has also intensified. This article focuses on these transformations by examining several important areas in which thinking and scholarship on life sentencing have been altered and spurred by recent developments. The review concludes by pointing to gaps in the field of research and highlighting issues on which social scientific research on life sentencing has more to contribute going forward.

Keyword(s): criminal justice reform, life sentencing, life without parole, perpetual confinement, punishment
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-061020-022154
2021-01-13
2024-04-26
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/4/1/annurev-criminol-061020-022154.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-061020-022154&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Appleton C. 2010. Life after Life Imprisonment Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  2. Appleton C. 2015. Life without parole. Oxf. Handb. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935383.013.25
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. Appleton C, Grøver B. 2007. The pros and cons of life without parole. Br. J. Criminol. 47:4597–615
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Appleton C, Van Zyl Smit D 2016. The paradox of reform: life imprisonment in England and Wales. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 217–40 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Aviram H 2020. Yesterday's Monsters: The Manson Family Cases and the Illusion of Parole Oakland, CA: Univ. Calif. Press
  6. Beckett K. 2018. The politics, promise, and peril of criminal justice reform in the context of mass incarceration. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1:235–59
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Beckett K, Reosti A, Knaphus E 2016. The end of an era? Understanding the contradictions of criminal justice reform. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 664:1238–59
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Blagg D, Brown M, Buchanan A, Ellis B, Gee O et al. 2015. Life without parole sentences in Washington State Rep., Univ. Wash. Law Soc. Justice Progr Seattle: https://lsj.washington.edu/research/undergraduate/life-without-parole-sentences-washington-state
  9. Brewer-Carías AR. 2008. Constitutional Protection of Human Rights in Latin America: A Comparative Study of the Ampara Proceeding Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Brockway Z. 1870. The idea of a true prison system for a state. Transactions of the National Congress on Penitentiary and Reformatory Discipline E Wines 38–65 Albany, NY: Argus Co.
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Brown v. Plata 563 U.S. 493 2011.)
  12. Campbell M, Schoenfeld H, Vaughn P 2020. Same old song and dance? An analysis of legislative activity in a period of penal reform. Punishm. Soc. 22:4389–412
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Carson EA, Sabol WJ. 2016. Aging of the state prison population, 1993–2013 Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 2487665, Dep. Justice Washington, DC: https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/aspp9313.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Cheatwood D. 1988. The life-without-parole sanction: its current status and a research agenda. Crime Delinquency 34:43–59
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Cohen S, Taylor L. 1972. Psychological Survival: The Experience of Long-Term Imprisonment London: Penguin
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Coninx A. 2016. Life without parole for preventive reasons? Lifelong post-sentence detention in Switzerland. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 435–60 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Crawley E, Sparks R. 2005. Older men in prison: survival, coping, and identity. The Effects of Imprisonment A Liebling, S Maruna 343–65 London: Willan
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Crewe B. 2011. Depth, weight, tightness: revisiting the pains of imprisonment. Punishm. Soc. 13:5509–29
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Crewe B, Hulley S, Wright S 2020. Life Imprisonment from Young Adulthood: Adaptation, Identity, Time London: Palgrave Macmillan
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Cunningham MD, Sorensen JR. 2006. Nothing to lose? A comparative examination of prison misconduct rates among life-without-parole and other long-term high-security inmates. Crim. Justice Behav. 33:6683–705
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Death Penal. Inf. Cent. 2019. The death penalty in 2019: year end report Rep., Death Penal. Inf. Cent Washington, DC: https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/facts-and-research/dpic-reports/dpic-year-end-reports/the-death-penalty-in-2019-year-end-report
    [Google Scholar]
  22. de León Villalba F. 2016. Long-term imprisonment in Latin America. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 329–48 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Dessecker A. 2016. Constitutional limits on life imprisonment and post-sentence preventive detention in Germany. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 411–34 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Dhanuka M. 2016. A new form of life imprisonment for India. ? In Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 119–40 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Dichter T. 2017. Worst of the worst: rehabilitationist roots of life without parole. Law Cult. Humanit. https://doi.org/10.1177/1743872117733190
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  26. Dilts A. 2015. Death penalty abolition in neoliberal times: the SAFE California Act and the nexus of savings and security. Death and Other Penalties G Adelsberg, L Guenther, S Zeman 106–29 New York: Fordham Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Dolovich S. 2012. Creating the permanent prisoner. Life Without Parole: America's New Death Penalty? C Ogletree Jr., A Sarat 96–137 New York: NYU Press
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Fitz-Gibbon K. 2016. Life without parole in Australia: current practices, juvenile and retrospective sentencing. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 75–96 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Flanagan T. 1995. Long-Term Imprisonment New York: Sage
  30. Fleury-Steiner B. 2015. Effects of life imprisonment and the crisis of prisoner health. Criminol. Public Policy 14:2407–16
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Foster B. 1988. Pardons and politics: how it all went wrong. Angolite 13:133–50
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Foster B. 1995. What is the meaning of life: the evolution of natural life sentences in Louisiana, 1973–1994 Paper presented at the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences Annual Meeting March 9 Boston, MA:
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Frisso GM. 2016. The abolition of life imprisonment in Brazil and its contradictions. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 307–28 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Garland D. 2007. Rethinking the symbolic–instrumental distinction: meanings and motives in American capital punishment. Governance and Regulation in Social Life A Brannigan, G Pavlich 119–30 London: Routledge-Cavendish
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Garrett B. 2017. End of its Rope: How Killing the Death Penalty Can Revive Criminal Justice Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  36. George E. 2010. A Woman Doing Life: Notes from a Prison for Women New York: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Ghandnoosh N. 2017. Delaying a second chance: the declining prospects for parole on life sentences. The Sentencing Project https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/delaying-second-chance-declining-prospects-parole-life-sentences/
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Girling E. 2016. Sites of crossing and death in punishment: the parallel trade-offs and equivalencies of the death penalty and life without parole in the United States. Howard J. Crime Justice 55:3345–61
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Glover M. 1990. Opening the 10–6 floodgate. Angolite 15:459–64
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Goffman E. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates New York: Anchor
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Gottschalk M. 2012. No way out? Life sentences and the politics of penal reform. Life Without Parole: America's New Death Penalty? C Ogletree, A Sarat 227–81 New York: NYU Press
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Gottschalk M. 2013. Sentenced to life: penal reform and the most severe sanctions. Annu. Rev. Law Soc. Sci. 9:353–82
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Gottschalk M. 2015. Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Graham v. Florida 510 U.S. 48 2010.)
  45. Griffin D. 2018. The rise of life imprisonment. Killing Time: Life Imprisonment and Parole in Ireland39–61 London: Palgrave Macmillan
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Gumboh E. 2017. A critical analysis of life imprisonment in Malawi. J. Afr. Law 61:3443–66
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Haines HH. 1996. Against Capital Punishment: The Anti-Death-Penalty Movement in America, 1972–1994 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Handtke V, Bretschneider W, Elger B, Wangmo T 2017. The collision of care and punishment: ageing prisoners’ view on compassionate release. Punishm. Soc. 19:15–22
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Harmelin v. Michigan 501 U.S. 957 1991.)
  50. Hartman KE. 2010. Mother California: A Story of Redemption Behind Bars New York: Atlas Co.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Hartman KE 2013. Too Cruel, Not Unusual Enough Lancaster, CA: Other Death Penal. Proj.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Harv. Law Rev. 2006. A matter of life and death: the effect of life-without-parole statutes on capital punishment. Harv. Law Rev. 119:1838–54
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Hassine V. 1996. Life Without Parole: Living and Dying in Prison Today Los Angeles: Roxbury Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Henry JS. 2012. Death in prison sentences: overutilized and underscrutinized. Life Without Parole: America's New Death Penalty? C Ogletree Jr., A Sarat 66–95 New York: NYU Press
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Henry JS, Salvatore C, Pugh B-E 2018. Virtual life sentences: an exploratory study. Prison J 98:3294–313
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Herbert S. 2019. Too Easy to Keep: Life-Sentenced Prisoners and the Future of Mass Incarceration Oakland: Univ. Calif. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Iftene A. 2019. Punished for Aging: Vulnerability, Rights, and Access to Justice in Canadian Penitentiaries Toronto: Univ. Toronto Press
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Irwin J. 2009. Lifers: Seeking Redemption in Prison New York: Routledge
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Jewkes Y. 2005. Loss, liminality and the life sentence: managing identity through a disrupted lifecourse. The Effects of Imprisonment A Liebling, S Maruna 366–88 London: Willan
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Johnson R, Dobrzanska A. 2005. Mature coping among life-sentenced inmates: an exploratory study of adjustment dynamics. Correct. Compend. 30:68–9
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Johnson R, Leigey M. 2020. The life-course of juvenile lifers: understanding maturation and development as Miller and its progeny guide juvenile life sentence release decisions. J. Crim. Justice Law 3:229–46
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Johnson R, McGunigall-Smith S. 2008. Life without parole, America's other death penalty: notes on life under sentence of death by incarceration. Prison J 88:2328–46
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Kazemian L, Travis J. 2015. Imperative for inclusion of long termers and lifers in research and policy. Criminol. Public Policy 14:2355–95
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Kennedy L. 2013. “Longtermer blues”: penal politics, reform, and carceral experiences at Angola. Punishm. Soc. 15:3304–22
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Kolakoski LW. 1937. Comparative study of commutation and regular parole cases for the state of Pennsylvania. Prison J 17:322–27
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Landa Gorostiza J-M. 2016. Long-term and life imprisonment in Spain: release procedures and terrorism. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 389–407 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Lappi-Seppälä T. 2016. Life imprisonment and related institutions in the Nordic countries. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 461–506 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Leigey ME. 2015. The Forgotten Men: Serving a Life without Parole Sentence New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Lempert LB 2016. Women Doing Life: Gender, Punishment, and the Struggle for Identity New York: NYU Press
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Lévay M. 2016. Constitutionalising life imprisonment without parole: the case of Hungary. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 167–88 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Liem M. 2016. After Life Imprisonment: Reentry in the Era of Mass Incarceration New York: NYU Press
     [Google Scholar]
  72. López Lorca B. 2016. Life imprisonment in Latin America. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 43–72 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Lynch M. 2016. Hard Bargains: The Coercive Power of Drug Laws in Federal Court New York: Russell Sage Found.
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Macdonald D, Morgenbesser L. 1984. Life without parole statutes in the United States Div. Progr. Plan. Res. Eval. Rep., New York State Dep. Correct. Serv New York:
  75. Maguire K, Pastore AL, Flanagan T 1992. Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics Bur. Justice Statistics Rep. NCJ 143496, Dep. Justice Washington, DC: https://bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/scjs92.pdf
  76. Mann N. 2016. Older age, harder time: ageing and imprisonment. Handbook on Prisons Y Jewkes, J Bennett, B Crewe 514–28 New York: Routledge, 2nd ed..
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Mauer M, King RS, Young MC 2004. The meaning of “life”: Long prison sentences in context. The Sentencing Project https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/the-meaning-of-life-long-prison-sentences-in-context/
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Mauer M, Nellis A. 2018. The Meaning of Life: The Case for Abolishing Life Sentences New York: New Press
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Mehta S. 2016. False hope: how parole systems fail youth serving extreme sentences. American Civil Liberties Union https://www.aclu.org/issues/juvenile-justice/youth-incarceration/false-hope-how-parole-systems-fail-youth-serving-extreme
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Miao M. 2020. Replacing death with life? The rise of LWOP in the context of abolitionist campaigns in the United States. Northwest. J. Law Soc. Policy 15:2173–223
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Miller v. Alabama 567 U.S. 460 2012.)
  82. Minor-Harper S, Greenfeld LA. 1985. Prison admissions and releases, 1982 Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 97995, Dep. Justice Washington, DC: https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/par82.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Montgomery v. Louisiana 136 U.S. 718 2016.)
  84. Mujuzi JD. 2009. The evolution of the meaning(s) of penal servitude for life (life imprisonment) in Mauritius: the human rights and jurisprudential challenges confronted so far and those ahead. J. Afr. Law 53:2222–48
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Mujuzi JD. 2016. Life imprisonment and human rights in Uganda. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 97–118 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Nellis A. 2017. Still life: America's increasing use of life and long-term sentences. The Sentencing Project https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/still-life-americas-increasing-use-life-long-term-sentences/
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Nelson L. 2009. A history of penal reform in Angola, part I: the immovable object. Angolite 34:Sept./Oct.16–23
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Noonan ME. 2016. Mortality in state prisons, 2001–2014 Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 250150, US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/msp0114st.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Novisky MA. 2018. Avoiding the runaround: the link between cultural health capital and health management among older prisoners. Criminology 56:4643–78
     [Google Scholar]
  90. O'Donnell I. 2014. Prisoners, Solitude, and Time Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Ogletree CJ, Sarat A. 2012. Life Without Parole: America's New Death Penalty? New York: NYU Press
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Pease K. 1994. Cross-national imprisonment rates: limitations of method and possible conclusions. Br. J. Criminol. 34:116–30
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Petersilia J. 1999. Parole and prisoner reentry in the United States. Crime Justice 26:479–529
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Pifferi M. 2016. Reinventing Punishment: A Comparative History of Criminology and Penology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Porter LC, Bushway SD, Tsao HS, Smith HL 2016. How the US prison boom has changed the age distribution of the prison population. Criminology 54:130–55
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Powers E. 1972. Parole Eligibility of Prisoners Serving a Life Sentence Boston, MA: Massachusetts Correct. Assoc, 2nd ed..
  97. Reitz K. 2012. The “traditional” indeterminate sentencing model. The Oxford Handbook of Sentencing and Corrections J Petersilia, K Reitz 270–98 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Reitz KR, Rhine EE. 2020. Parole release and supervision: critical drivers of American prison policy. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 3:281–98
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Rhine EE, Petersilia J, Reitz KR 2017. The future of parole release. Crime Justice 46:1279–338
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Rideau W, Wikberg R. 1992. Life Sentences: Rage and Survival Behind Bars New York: New York Times Books
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Ripper B, Johnson R. 2019. Livable term sentences as alternatives to juvenile life without parole: a sentencing framework based on United States v. Grant. J. Crim. . Justice Law 3:158–74
     [Google Scholar]
  102. Rogan M. 2018. Discerning penal values and judicial decision making: the case of whole life sentencing in Europe and the United States of America. Howard J. Crime Justice 57:3321–38
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Rowan M, Kane B 1991–1992. Life means life maybe? An analysis of Pennsylvania's policy toward lifers. Duquesne Law Rev 30:661–79
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Russell SF. 2014. Review for release: juvenile offenders, state parole practices, and the Eighth Amendment. Ind. Law J. 89:373–440
     [Google Scholar]
  105. Schartmueller D. 2019. How long is life? Comparing the processes of release for life-imprisoned offenders in Denmark, Finland, and Sweden. Eur. J. Crim. Policy Res. 25:4391–408
     [Google Scholar]
  106. Schmitt GR, Konfrst HJ. 2015. Life sentences in the federal system Rep., U.S. Sentencing Comm Washington, DC: https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/research-projects-and-surveys/miscellaneous/20150226_Life_Sentences.pdf
  107. Schoenfeld H. 2018. Building the Prison State: Race and the Politics of Mass Incarceration Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Seeds C. 2017. Bifurcation nation: American penal policy in late mass incarceration. Punishm. Soc. 19:5590–610
     [Google Scholar]
  109. Seeds C. 2018. Disaggregating LWOP: life without parole, capital punishment, and mass incarceration in Florida, 1972–1995. Law Soc. Rev. 52:1172–205
     [Google Scholar]
  110. Seeds C. 2019a. Historical modes of perpetual penal confinement: theories and practices before life without parole. Law Soc. Inq. 44:2305–32
     [Google Scholar]
  111. Seeds C. 2019b. Governors and prisoners: the death of clemency and the making of life sentencing without release in Pennsylvania. Soc. Justice 46:481–105
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Sentencing Proj. 2020. People serving life exceeds entire prison population of 1970. The Sentencing Project https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/people-serving-life-exceeds-entire-prison-population-1970/
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Sheleff L. 1988. Ultimate Penalties: Capital Punishment, Life Imprisonment and Physical Torture Columbus, OH: Ohio State Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  114. Simon J. 1993. Poor Control: Parole and the Social Control of the Underclass Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
     [Google Scholar]
  115. Simon J. 2012. Dignity and risk: the long road from Graham v. Florida to abolition of life without parole. Life Without Parole: America's New Death Penalty? C Ogletree Jr., A Sarat 282–310 New York: NYU Press
     [Google Scholar]
  116. Simon J. 2014a. Mass Incarceration on Trial: A Remarkable Court Decision and the Future of Prisons in America New York: New Press
     [Google Scholar]
  117. Simon J. 2014b. The cruelty of the abolitionists. J. Hum. Rights Pract. 6:3486–502
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Smith T, Jiang S. 2019. Making sense of life without parole in China. Punishm. Soc. 21:170–88
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Solem v. Helm 463 U.S. 277 1983.)
  120. Sorensen JR, Reidy TJ. 2019. Nothing to lose? An examination of prison misconduct among life-without-parole inmates. Prison J 99:146–65
     [Google Scholar]
  121. Spohn C. 2014. Twentieth-century sentencing reform movements: looking backward, moving forward. Criminol. Public Policy 13:4535–45
     [Google Scholar]
  122. Steiker C, Steiker J. 2016. Courting Death: The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press
     [Google Scholar]
  123. Steiker C, Steiker J. 2020. The rise, fall, and afterlife of the death penalty in the United States. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 3:299–315
     [Google Scholar]
  124. Stewart J, Lieberman P. 1982. What is this new sentence that takes away parole. Stud. Lawyer 11:14–1739
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Sykes G. 2007 (1958. The Society of Captives: A Study of a Maximum Security Prison Princeton NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  126. Tannenbaum J, Jackson S. 2010. By Heart: Poetry, Prison, and Two Lives Oakland, CA: New Village Press
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Tonry M. 2016. Sentencing Fragments: Penal Reform in America, 1975–2025 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  128. Travis J, Western B, Redburn S 2014. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences Washington, DC: Natl. Res. Counc.
     [Google Scholar]
  129. Turner J, Bunting W 2013. A living death: life without parole for nonviolent offenses. American Civil Liberties Union https://www.aclu.org/report/living-death-life-without-parole-nonviolent-offenses
    [Google Scholar]
  130. van Hattum W, Meijer S 2016. An administrative procedure for life prisoners: law and practice of royal pardon in the Netherlands. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 141–66 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  131. Vannier M. 2016a. A right to hope? Life imprisonment in France. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 189–214 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  132. Vannier M. 2016b. Women serving life without the possibility of parole. Howard J. Crime Justice 55:3328–44
     [Google Scholar]
  133. Vannier M. 2019. Normalizing extreme imprisonment: the case of life without parole in California (1972–2012). Theor. Criminol. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480619893678
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  134. Van Zyl Smit D. 2001. Abolishing life imprisonment. Punishm. Soc. 3:2299–306
     [Google Scholar]
  135. Van Zyl Smit D. 2002. Taking Life Imprisonment Seriously: In National and International Law Norwell, MA: Kluwer Law Int.
     [Google Scholar]
  136. Van Zyl Smit D. 2006. Life imprisonment: recent issues in national and international law. Int. J. Law Psychiatry 29:5405–21
     [Google Scholar]
  137. Van Zyl Smit D, Appleton C 2016. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
  138. Van Zyl Smit D, Appleton C 2019. Life Imprisonment: A Global Human Rights Analysis Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  139. Van Zyl Smit D, Corda A 2017. American exceptionalism in parole release and supervision. American Exceptionalism in Crime and Punishment K Reitz 410–86 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  140. Villaume A. 2005. “Life without parole” and “virtual life sentences”: death sentences by any other name. Contemp. Justice Rev. 8:3265–77
     [Google Scholar]
  141. Vinter and Others v. The United Kingdom ECtHR (aaps. 66069/09, 130/10 and 3896/10), July 9, 2013.
  142. Vojta F. 2016. Life and long-term imprisonment in the countries of the former Yugoslavia. Life Imprisonment and Human Rights D Van Zyl Smit, C Appleton 351–72 Oxford, UK: Hart Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
  143. Weber H-M. 1999. The Abolition of Life Imprisonment Baden-Baden, Ger: Nomos
  144. Williams BA, Stern MF, Mellow J, Safer M, Greifinger RB 2012. Aging in correctional custody: setting a policy agenda for older prisoner health care. Am. J. Public Health 102:81475–81
     [Google Scholar]
  145. Windlesham D. 1993. Responses to Crime: Penal Policy in the Making Oxford: Clarendon Press
     [Google Scholar]
  146. Wines E. 1870. Transactions of the National Congress on Penitentiary and Reformatory Discipline Albany, NY: Argus Co.
  147. Wines E, Dwight T. 1867. Report on the Prisons and Reformatories of the United States and Canada Albany, NY: Van Benthuysen & Sons
  148. Wines F. 1904. The New Criminology New York: Kempster Print Co.
  149. Wright J. 1990. Life-without-parole: an alternative to death or not much of a life at all. Vanderbilt Law Rev 43:529–68
     [Google Scholar]
  150. Young KM. 2016. Parole hearings and victims' rights: implementation, ambiguity, and reform. Conn. Law Rev. 49:2431–98
     [Google Scholar]
  151. Zimring F. 2019. Author meets critics: life imprisonment: a global human rights analysis Comments presented at the 75th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology San Francisco: November 14
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Zimring FE, Johnson D. 2012. The dark at the top of the stairs. The Oxford Handbook of Sentencing and Corrections J Petersilia, K Reitz 737–52 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-061020-022154
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error