1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Psychology
  4. Volume 75, 2024
  5. Article

Annual Review of Psychology

Volume 75, 2024

How Can People Become Happier? A Systematic Review of Preregistered Experiments

Abstract

Can happiness be reliably increased? Thousands of studies speak to this question. However, many of them were conducted during a period in which researchers commonly “hacked,” creating uncertainty about how many discoveries might be false positives. To prevent hacking, happiness researchers increasingly preregister their studies, committing to analysis plans before analyzing data. We conducted a systematic literature search to identify preregistered experiments testing strategies for increasing happiness. We found surprisingly little support for many widely recommended strategies (e.g., performing random acts of kindness). However, our review suggests that other strategies—such as being more sociable—may reliably promote happiness. We also found strong evidence that governments and organizations can improve happiness by providing underprivileged individuals with financial support. We conclude that happiness research stands on the brink of an exciting new era, in which modern best practices will be applied to develop theoretically grounded strategies that can produce lasting gains in life satisfaction.

Keyword(s): experiments, happiness, preregistration, subjective well-being
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-022423-030818
2024-01-18
2024-04-27
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/75/1/annurev-psych-022423-030818.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-022423-030818&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aknin LB, Barrington-Leigh CP, Dunn EW, Helliwell JF, Burns J et al. 2013. Prosocial spending and well-being: cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 104:4635–52
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Aknin LB, Dunn EW, Proulx J, Lok I, Norton MI. 2020. Does spending money on others promote happiness? A registered replication report. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 119:2e15–26
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Aknin LB, Dunn EW, Whillans AV. 2022. The emotional rewards of prosocial spending are robust and replicable in large samples. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 31:6536–45
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Allcott H, Braghieri L, Eichmeyer S, Gentzkow M. 2020. The welfare effects of social media. Am. Econ. Rev. 110:3629–76
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Andersen AG, Kotsadam A, Somville V. 2022. Material resources and well-being—evidence from an Ethiopian housing lottery. J. Health Econ. 83:102619
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Baumeister RF, Leary MR. 1995. The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychol. Bull. 117:3497–529
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Benjamin DJ, Heffetz O, Kimball MS, Rees-Jones A. 2012. What do you think would make you happier? What do you think you would choose?. Am. Econ. Rev. 102:52083–110
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bessone P, Rao G, Schilbach F, Schofield H, Toma M. 2021. The economic consequences of increasing sleep among the urban poor. Q. J. Econ. 136:31887–941
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Blanchflower DG, Oswald AJ, Stewart-Brown S. 2013. Is psychological well-being linked to the consumption of fruit and vegetables?. Soc. Indic. Res. 114:785–801
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Chambers CD. 2013. Registered reports: a new publishing initiative at Cortex. Cortex 49:609–10
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Coles NA, March DS, Marmolejo-Ramos F, Larsen JT, Arinze NC et al. 2022. A multi-lab test of the facial feedback hypothesis by the Many Smiles Collaboration. Nat. Hum. Behav. 6:121731–42
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Coles NA, Gaertner L, Frohlich B, Larsen JT, Basnight-Brown DM. 2023. Fact or artifact? Demand characteristics and participants' beliefs can moderate, but do not fully account for, the effects of facial feedback on emotional experience. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 124:2287–310
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Conner TS, Brookie KL, Carr AC, Mainvil LA, Vissers MC. 2017. Let them eat fruit! The effect of fruit and vegetable consumption on psychological well-being in young adults: a randomized controlled trial. PLOS ONE 12:2e0171206
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Curry OS, Rowland LA, Van Lissa CJ, Zlotowitz S, McAlaney J, Whitehouse H. 2018. Happy to help? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of performing acts of kindness on the well-being of the actor. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 76:320–29
     [Google Scholar]
  15. data.ai 2022. State of Mobile 2022 Rep., Jan. 12. https://www.data.ai/en/go/state-of-mobile-2022
  16. Diener E. 1984. Subjective well-being. Psychol. Bull. 95:3542–75
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Diener E, Northcott R, Zyphur MJ, West SG. 2022. Beyond experiments. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 17:41101–19
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Dunn EW, Aknin LB, Norton MI. 2008. Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science 319:58701687–88
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Dwyer RJ, Dunn EW. 2022. Wealth redistribution promotes happiness. PNAS 119:46e2211123119
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Dwyer RJ, Kushlev K, Dunn EW. 2018. Smartphone use undermines enjoyment of face-to-face social interactions. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 78:233–39
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Dwyer RJ, Palepu A, Williams C, Zhao J. 2021. Unconditional cash transfers reduce homelessness. PsyArXiv, Nov. 18. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ukngr
  22. Dwyer RJ, Zhuo AX, Dunn EW 2023. Why do people turn to smartphones during social interactions?. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol 109104506
  23. Emmons RA, McCullough ME. 2003. Counting blessings versus burdens: an experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 84:377–89
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Folk D, Dunn E. 2023. A systematic review of the strength of evidence for the most commonly recommended happiness strategies in mainstream media. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7:1697–707
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Fraley RC, Vazire S. 2014. The N-pact factor: evaluating the quality of empirical journals with respect to sample size and statistical power. PLOS ONE 9:10e109019
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Frederick S, Loewenstein G. 1999. Hedonic adaptation. Well-Being: Foundations of Hedonic Psychology D Kahneman ED, N Schwarz 302–29. New York: Russell Sage Found.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Fredrickson BL. 2004. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 359: 1449.1367–77
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Fritz MM, Walsh LC, Cole SW, Epel E, Lyubomirsky S. 2021. Kindness and cellular aging: a pre-registered experiment testing the effects of prosocial behavior on telomere length and well-being. Brain Behav. Immun. Health 11:100187
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Goldsworthy AK. 2006. Caesar: Life of a Colossus New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
  30. Hall M. 2023. Facebook. Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/Facebook
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Han J, Kaiser C. 2022. Time use and happiness: evidence across three decades. Work. Pap., Zhejiang Univ., Hangzhou, China
  32. Hannibal KB, Aknin LB, Douglas KS, Viljoen JL. 2019. Does helping promote well-being in at-risk youth and ex-offender samples?. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 82:307–17
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Haushofer J, Chemin M, Jang C, Abraham J 2020a. Economic and psychological effects of health insurance and cash transfers: evidence from a randomized experiment in Kenya. J. Dev. Econ. 144:102416
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Haushofer J, Mudida R, Shapiro J 2020b. The comparative impact of cash transfers and psychotherapy on psychological and economic well-being NBER Work. Pap 28106
  35. Haushofer J, Shapiro J. 2016. The short-term impact of unconditional cash transfers to the poor: experimental evidence from Kenya. Q. J. Econ. 131:41973–2042
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Haushofer J, Shapiro J. 2018. The long-term impact of unconditional cash transfers: experimental evidence from Kenya Work. Pap., Busara Center Behav. Econ., Nairobi Kenya:
  37. Heintzelman SJ, Kushlev K, Lutes LD, Wirtz D, Kanippayoor JM et al. 2020. ENHANCE: evidence for the efficacy of a comprehensive intervention program to promote subjective well-being. J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. 26:2360–83
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Henrich J, Heine SJ, Norenzayan A. 2010. The weirdest people in the world?. Behav. Brain Sci. 33:2–361–135
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Henrich J, Henrich N. 2006. Culture, evolution and the puzzle of human cooperation. Cogn. Syst. Res. 7:2–3220–45
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Hirshberg MJ, Frye C, Dahl CJ, Riordan KM, Vack NJ et al. 2022. A randomized controlled trial of a smartphone-based well-being training in public school system employees during the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Educ. Psychol. 114:81895–911
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Hobbs C, Jelbert S, Santos LR, Hood B. 2022. Evaluation of a credit-bearing online administered happiness course on undergraduates’ mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLOS ONE 17:20263514
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Hopper E. 2020. How volunteering can help your mental health. Greater Good Magazine July 3. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_volunteering_can_help_your_mental_health
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Jacobs AJ. 2018. Thanks a Thousand: A Gratitude Journey New York: Simon & Schuster
  44. Jacques-Hamilton R, Sun J, Smillie LD. 2019. Costs and benefits of acting extraverted: a randomized controlled trial. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 148:91538–56
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Kahneman D, Krueger AB, Schkade DA, Schwarz N, Stone AA. 2004. A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: the day reconstruction method. Science 306:57021776–80
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Kardas M, Schroeder J, O'Brien E. 2022. Keep talking: (mis)understanding the hedonic trajectory of conversation. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 123:4717–40
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Keech JJ, Hagger MS, Hamilton K. 2021. Changing stress mindsets with a novel imagery intervention: a randomized controlled trial. Emotion 21:1123–36
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Kim G, Adams I, Diaw M, Celly M, Nelson LD, Jung MH. 2022. Prosocial spending encourages happiness: a replication of the only experiment reported in Dunn, Aknin, and Norton 2008. PLOS ONE 17:9e0272434
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Klotz L. 2021. Subtract: The Untapped Science of Less London: Flatiron Books
  50. Kushlev K, Dunn EW. 2019. Smartphones distract parents from cultivating feelings of connection when spending time with their children. J. Soc. Pers. Relatsh. 36:61619–39
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Kushlev K, Dwyer R, Dunn EW. 2019. The social price of constant connectivity: Smartphones impose subtle costs on well-being. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 28:4347–52
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Kushlev K, Proulx JD, Dunn EW. 2017. Digitally connected, socially disconnected: the effects of relying on technology rather than other people. Comput. Hum. Behav. 76:68–74
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Kvarven A, Strømland E, Johannesson M. 2020. Comparing meta-analyses and preregistered multiple-laboratory replication projects. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4:4423–34
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Layous K, Chancellor J, Lyubomirsky S. 2014. Positive activities as protective factors against mental health conditions. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 123:13–12
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Lesani A, Mohammadpoorasl A, Javadi M, Esfeh JM, Fakhari A. 2016. Eating breakfast, fruit and vegetable intake and their relation with happiness in college students. Eat. Weight Disord. 21:4645–51
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Lindqvist E, Östling R, Cesarini D. 2020. Long-run effects of lottery wealth on psychological well-being. Rev. Econ. Stud. 87:62703–26
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Lucas RE. 2007. Adaptation and the set-point model of subjective well-being: Does happiness change after major life events?. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 16:275–79
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Lyubomirsky S. 2011. Hedonic Adaptation to Positive and Negative Experiences Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  59. Lyubomirsky S, Layous K. 2013. How do simple positive activities increase well-being?. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 22:157–62
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Martela F, Ryan RM. 2021. If giving money to the Red Cross increases well-being, does taking money from the Red Cross increase ill-being? Evidence from three experiments. J. Res. Pers. 93:104114
     [Google Scholar]
  61. McGuire J, Kaiser C, Bach-Mortensen AM. 2022. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of cash transfers on subjective well-being and mental health in low-and middle-income countries. Nat. Hum. Behav. 6:3359–70
     [Google Scholar]
  62. McIntosh C, Zeitlin A. 2022. Using household grants to benchmark the cost effectiveness of a USAID workforce readiness program. J. Dev. Econ. 157:102875
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Miles A, Upenieks L. 2022. Moral self-appraisals explain emotional rewards of prosocial behavior. J. Happiness Stud. 23:51793–814
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Montgomery A, Mingis K 2022. The evolution of Apple's iPhone. Computer World Sept. 14. https://www.computerworld.com/article/2604020/the-evolution-of-apples-iphone.html
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Musick MA, Wilson J 2003. Volunteering and depression: the role of psychological and social resources in different age groups. Soc. Sci. Med. 56:2259–69
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Nelson LD, Simmons J, Simonsohn U. 2018. Psychology's renaissance. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 69:511–34
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Nelson-Coffey SK, Johnson C, Coffey JK. 2023. Safe haven gratitude improves emotions, well-being, and parenting outcomes among parents with high levels of attachment insecurity. J. Posit. Psychol. 18:175–85
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Noone C, Hogan MJ. 2018. A randomised active-controlled trial to examine the effects of an online mindfulness intervention on executive control, critical thinking and key thinking dispositions in a university student sample. BMC Psychol. 6:113
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Nosek BA, Ebersole CR, DeHaven AC, Mellor DT. 2018. The preregistration revolution. PNAS 115:112600–6
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Nuzzo R. 2014. Statistical errors. Nature 506:7487150–52
     [Google Scholar]
  71. O'Brien E. 2022. The “next” effect: when a better future worsens the present. Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci. 13:2456–65
     [Google Scholar]
  72. O'Brien E, Kassirer S. 2019. People are slow to adapt to the warm glow of giving. Psychol. Sci. 30:2193–204
     [Google Scholar]
  73. O'Brien E, Smith RW. 2019. Unconventional consumption methods and enjoying things consumed: recapturing the “first-time” experience. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 45:167–80
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Oishi S, Choi H, Koo M, Galinha I, Ishii K et al. 2020. Happiness, meaning, and psychological richness. Affect. Sci. 1:2107–15
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Orben A, Przybylski AK. 2019. The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nat. Hum. Behav. 3:173–82
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Piqueras JA, Kuhne W, Vera-Villarroel P, van Straten A, Cuijpers P. 2011. Happiness and health behaviours in Chilean college students: a cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health 11:443
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Przybylski AK, Nguyen TVT, Law W, Weinstein N. 2021. Does taking a short break from social media have a positive effect on well-being? Evidence from three preregistered field experiments. J. Technol. Behav. Sci. 6:507–14
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Rankin K, Sweeny K. 2022. Preparing silver linings for a cloudy day: the consequences of preemptive benefit finding. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 48:81255–68
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Resnick B. 2019. Have smartphones really destroyed a generation? We don't know. Vox May 16. https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2019/2/20/18210498/smartphones-tech-social-media-teens-depression-anxiety-research
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Richard FD, Bond CF, Stokes-Zoota JJ. 2003. One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 7:4331–63
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Rubin M, Donkin C. 2022. Exploratory hypothesis tests can be more compelling than confirmatory hypothesis tests. Philos. Psychol. In press. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515089.2022.2113771
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Ryan RM, Deci EL. 2001. On happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 52:141–66
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Schroeder J, Lyons D, Epley N. 2022. Hello, stranger? Pleasant conversations are preceded by concerns about starting one. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 151:51141–53
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Schroter FA, Siebertz M, Jansen P. 2023. The impact of a short body-focused meditation on body ownership and interoceptive abilities. Mindfulness 14:1159–73
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Schueller SM 2014. Person–activity fit in positive psychological interventions. The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Positive Psychological Interventions AC Parks, SM Schueller 385–402. New York: Wiley
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Sheldon KM. 2016. Putting eudaimonia in its place. Handbook of Eudaimonic Well-Being J Vittersø 531–41. Cham, Switz: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Simmons JP, Nelson LD, Simonsohn U. 2011. False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychol. Sci. 22:111359–66
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Simmons JP, Nelson LD, Simonsohn U. 2013. Life after p-hacking Paper presented at the Meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology New Orleans, LA: Jan 17–19
  89. Simonsohn U, Simmons J, Nelson LD. 2022. Meaningless means: Some fundamental problems with meta-analytic averages. Data Colada Nov. 1. http://datacolada.org/104
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Strack F, Martin LL, Stepper S. 1988. Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: a nonobtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 54:5768–77
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Swingle MK. 2021. COVID, mental health and interactive screen use, complement or override. BC Psychol. 10:18–16
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Todd B. 2020. This is your most important decision. 80,000 Hours https://80000hours.org/make-a-difference-with-your-career/
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Turkle S. 2011. Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other New York: Basic Books
  94. Twenge JM. 2019. More time on technology, less happiness? Associations between digital-media use and psychological well-being. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 28:4372–79
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Twenge JM, Haidt J, Lozano J, Cummins KM. 2022. Specification curve analysis shows that social media use is linked to poor mental health, especially among girls. Acta Psychol. 224:103512
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Varma MM, Chen D, Lin X, Aknin LB, Hu X. 2023. Prosocial behavior promotes positive emotion during the COVID-19 pandemic. Emotion 23:2538–53
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Varma MM, Hu X. 2022. Prosocial behaviour reduces unwanted intrusions of experimental traumatic memories. Behav. Res. Ther. 148:103998
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Vazire S. 2018. Implications of the credibility revolution for productivity, creativity, and progress. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 13:4411–17
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Vazire S. 2019. Do we want to be credible or incredible?. APS Observer Dec. 23. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/do-we-want-to-be-credible-or-incredible
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Verduyn P, Gugushvili N, Massar K, Täht K, Kross E. 2020. Social comparison on social networking sites. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 36:32–37
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Vosgerau J, Simonsohn U, Nelson LD, Simmons JP. 2019. 99% impossible: a valid, or falsifiable, internal meta-analysis. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 148:91628–39
     [Google Scholar]
  102. Wagenmakers EJ, Beek T, Dijkhoff L, Gronau QF, Acosta A et al. 2016. Registered replication report: Strack, Martin, & Stepper 1988. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 11:6917–28
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Walsh LC, Regan A, Twenge JM, Lyubomirsky S. 2023. What is the optimal way to give thanks? Comparing the effects of gratitude expressed privately, one-to-one via text, or publicly on social media. Affect. Sci. 4:82–91
     [Google Scholar]
  104. West C, Mogilner C, DeVoe SE. 2021. Happiness from treating the weekend like a vacation. Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci. 12:3346–56
     [Google Scholar]
  105. Whillans AV, Dunn EW, Smeets P, Bekkers R, Norton MI. 2017. Buying time promotes happiness. PNAS 114:328523–27
     [Google Scholar]
  106. Whillans AV, West C. 2022. Alleviating time poverty among the working poor: a pre-registered longitudinal field experiment. Sci. Rep. 12:719
     [Google Scholar]
  107. White CA, Uttl B, Holder MD. 2019. Meta-analyses of positive psychology interventions: The effects are much smaller than previously reported. PLOS ONE 14:5e0216588
     [Google Scholar]
  108. White MW, Khan N, Deren JS, Sim JJ, Majka EA. 2022. Give a dog a bone: Spending money on pets promotes happiness. J. Posit. Psychol. 17:4589–95
     [Google Scholar]
  109. Wu S, Paluck E. 2022. Having a voice in your group: Increasing productivity through group participation. Behav. Public Policy. In press. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2022.9
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-022423-030818
Loading
How Can People Become Happier? A Systematic Review of Preregistered Experiments
Annual Review of Psychology 75, 467 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-022423-030818
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-022423-030818
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-022423-030818
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplemental Material

Supplementary Data

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error