1932

Abstract

There are many differences between men and women. To some extent, these are captured in the stereotypical images of these groups. Stereotypes about the way men and women think and behave are widely shared, suggesting a kernel of truth. However, stereotypical expectations not only reflect existing differences, but also impact the way men and women define themselves and are treated by others. This article reviews evidence on the nature and content of gender stereotypes and considers how these relate to gender differences in important life outcomes. Empirical studies show that gender stereotypes affect the way people attend to, interpret, and remember information about themselves and others. Considering the cognitive and motivational functions of gender stereotypes helps us understand their impact on implicit beliefs and communications about men and women. Knowledge of the literature on this subject can benefit the fair judgment of individuals in situations where gender stereotypes are likely to play a role.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719
2018-01-04
2024-03-19
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/69/1/annurev-psych-122216-011719.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Amodio D. 2014. The neuroscience of prejudice and stereotyping. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 15:670–82 [Google Scholar]
  2. Anderson RC, Klofstad CA. 2012. Preference for leaders with masculine voices holds in the case of feminine leadership roles. PLOS ONE 7:12e51216 [Google Scholar]
  3. Badgett MVL, Folbre N. 2003. Job gendering: occupational choice and the labor market. Ind. Relat. 42:270–98 [Google Scholar]
  4. Banaji MR, Greenwald AG. 1995. Implicit gender stereotyping in judgments of fame. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 68:181–98 [Google Scholar]
  5. Barreto M, Ellemers N. 2015. Detecting and experiencing prejudice: new answers to old questions. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 52:139–219 [Google Scholar]
  6. Barreto M, Ellemers N, Cihangir S, Stroebe K. 2008. The self-fulfilling effects of contemporary sexism: how it affects women's well-being and behavior. The Glass Ceiling in the 21st Century: Understanding Barriers to Gender Inequality M Barreto, M Ryan, M Schmitt 99–123 Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc. [Google Scholar]
  7. Barreto M, Ellemers N, Palacios M. 2004. The backlash of token mobility: the impact of past group experiences on individual ambition and effort. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 30:1433–45 [Google Scholar]
  8. Barreto M, Ellemers N, Piebinga L, Moya M. 2010. How nice of us and how dumb of me: the effect of exposure to benevolent sexism on women's task and relational self-descriptions. Sex Roles 62:532–44 [Google Scholar]
  9. Becker SW, Eagly AH. 2004. The heroism of women and men. Am. Psychol. 59:163–78 [Google Scholar]
  10. Behm-Morawitz E, Mastro D. 2009. The effects of the sexualization of female video game characters on gender stereotyping and female self-concept. Sex Roles 61:808–23 [Google Scholar]
  11. Bennett M, Sani F, Hopkins N, Agostini L, Malucchi L. 2000. Children's gender categorization: an investigation of automatic processing. Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 18:97–102 [Google Scholar]
  12. Biernat M, Manis M. 1994. Shifting standards and stereotype-based judgments. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 66:5–20 [Google Scholar]
  13. Bittman M, England P, Sayer L, Folbre N, Matheson G. 2003. When does gender trump money? Bargaining and time in household work. Am. J. Sociol. 109:186–214 [Google Scholar]
  14. Borkowska B, Pawlowski B. 2011. Female voice frequency in the context of dominance and attractiveness perception. Anim. Behav. 82:55–59 [Google Scholar]
  15. Brescoll VL, Uhlmann EL. 2005. Attitudes toward traditional and nontraditional parents. Psychol. Women Q. 29:436–45 [Google Scholar]
  16. Brescoll VL, Uhlmann EL. 2008. Can angry women get ahead? Status conferral, gender, and expression of emotion in the workplace. Psychol. Sci. 19:268–75 [Google Scholar]
  17. Buffington C, Cerf B, Jones C, Weinberg BA. 2016. STEM training and early career outcomes of female and male graduate students: evidence from UMETRICS data linked to the 2010 Census. Am. Econ. Rev. 106:333–38 [Google Scholar]
  18. Bur. Labor Stat. 2016. Charts by topic: household activities Am. Time Use Surv. Rep., Bur. Labor Stat., US Dep. Labor Washington, DC:
  19. Bussey K, Bandura A. 1999. Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychol. Rev. 106:676–713 [Google Scholar]
  20. Byrnes JP, Miller DC, Schafer WD. 1999. Gender differences in risk taking: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 125:367–83 [Google Scholar]
  21. Canal P, Garnham A, Oakhill J. 2015. Beyond gender stereotypes in language comprehension: self sex-role descriptions affect the brain's potentials associated with agreement processing. Front. Psychol. 6:1953 [Google Scholar]
  22. Carney DR, Cuddy AJC, Yap AJ. 2010. Power posing: Brief nonverbal displays affect neuroendocrine levels and risk tolerance. Psychol. Sci. 21:1363–68 [Google Scholar]
  23. Cashdan E. 1998. Smiles, speech, and body posture: how women and men display sociometric status and power. J. Nonverbal Behav. 22:209–28 [Google Scholar]
  24. Chatard A, Guimond S, Selimbegovic L. 2007. “How good are you in math?” The effect of gender stereotypes on students’ recollection of their school marks. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 43:1017–24 [Google Scholar]
  25. Cikara M, Eberhardt JL, Fiske ST. 2011. From agents to objects: sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 23:540–51 [Google Scholar]
  26. Clausell E, Fiske ST. 2005. When do subgroup parts add up to the stereotypic whole? Mixed stereotype content for gay male subgroups explains overall ratings. Soc. Cogn. 23:161–81 [Google Scholar]
  27. Cohn E. 2015. Google image search has a gender bias problem. Huffington Post Apr. 10. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/04/10/google-image-gender-bias_n_7036414.html
  28. Correll SJ, Benard S, Paik I. 2007. Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty. Am. J. Sociol. 112:483–99 [Google Scholar]
  29. Croft A, Schmader T, Block K. 2015. An underexamined inequality: cultural and psychological barriers to men's engagement with communal roles. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 19:343–70 [Google Scholar]
  30. Croft A, Schmader T, Block K, Baron AS. 2014. The second shift reflected in the second generation: Do parents' gender roles at home predict children's aspirations?. Psychol. Sci. 25:1418–28 [Google Scholar]
  31. Cuddy AJ, Wolf EB, Glick P, Crotty S, Chong J, Norton MI. 2015a. Men as cultural ideals: Cultural values moderate gender stereotype content. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 109:622–35 [Google Scholar]
  32. Cuddy AJC, Fiske ST, Glick P. 2004. When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn't cut the ice. J. Soc. Issues 60:701–18 [Google Scholar]
  33. Cuddy AJC, Wilmuth CA, Yap AJ, Carney DR. 2015b. Preparatory power posing affects nonverbal presence and job interview performance. J. Appl. Psychol. 100:1286–95 [Google Scholar]
  34. De Lemus S, Spears R, Moya M. 2012. The power of a smile to move you: complementary submissiveness in women's posture as a function of gender salience and facial expression. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 38:1480–94 [Google Scholar]
  35. Derks B, Van Laar C, Ellemers N. 2007. The beneficial effects of social identity protection on the performance motivation of members of devalued groups. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 1:217–56 [Google Scholar]
  36. Derks B, Van Laar C, Ellemers N. 2016. The queen bee phenomenon: why women leaders distance themselves from junior women. Leadersh. Q. 27:456–69 [Google Scholar]
  37. Diekman AB, Steinberg M, Brown ER, Belanger AL, Clark EK. 2017. A goal congruity model of role entry, engagement, and exit: understanding communal goal processes in STEM gender gaps. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 21:142–75 [Google Scholar]
  38. Drury BJ, Kaiser CR. 2014. Allies against sexism: the role of men in confronting sexism. J. Soc. Issues 70:637–52 [Google Scholar]
  39. Dutt K, Pfaff DL, Bernstein AF, Dillard JS, Block CJ. 2016. Gender differences in recommendation letters for postdoctoral fellowships in geoscience. Nat. Geosci. 9:805–8 [Google Scholar]
  40. Dyble M, Salali GD, Chaudhary N, Page A, Smith D. et al. 2015. Sex equality can explain the unique social structure of hunter-gatherer bands. Science 348:796–98 [Google Scholar]
  41. Eagly AH, Mladinic A. 1994. Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes, and judgments of competence. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 5:1–35 [Google Scholar]
  42. Eagly AH, Wood W. 2013. The nature-nurture debates: 25 years of challenges in understanding the psychology of gender. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 8:340–57 [Google Scholar]
  43. Ellemers N. 2014. Women at work: how organizational features impact career development. Policy Insights Behav. Brain Sci. 1:46–54 [Google Scholar]
  44. Ellemers N, Barreto M. 2015. Modern discrimination: how perpetrators and targets interactively perpetuate social disadvantage. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 3:142–46 [Google Scholar]
  45. Ellemers N, Jetten J. 2013. The many ways to be marginal in a group. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 17:3–21 [Google Scholar]
  46. Ellemers N, Rink F, Derks B, Ryan M. 2012. Women in high places: when and why promoting women into top positions can harm them individually or as a group (and how to prevent this). Res. Organ. Behav. 32:163–87 [Google Scholar]
  47. Ellemers N, Scheepers D, Popa A. 2010. Something to gain or something to lose? Affirmative action and regulatory focus emotions. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 13:201–13 [Google Scholar]
  48. Endendijk JJ, Groeneveld MG, Mesman J, Van der Pol LD, Van Berkel SR. et al. 2014. Boys don't play with dolls: mothers’ and fathers’ gender talk during picture book reading. Parent. Sci. Pract. 14:141–61 [Google Scholar]
  49. Faniko K, Ellemers N, Derks B. 2016. Queen bees and alpha males: Are successful women more competitive than successful men. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 46:903–13 [Google Scholar]
  50. Faniko K, Ellemers N, Derks B, Lorenzi-Cioldi F. 2017. Nothing changes, really: why women who break through the glass ceiling end up reinforcing it. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 43:638–51 [Google Scholar]
  51. Feinberg DR, DeBruine LM, Jones BC, Perrett DI. 2008. The role of femininity and averageness of voice pitch in aesthetic judgments of women's voices. Perception 37:615–23 [Google Scholar]
  52. Fine C. 2013. Neurosexism in functional neuroimaging: from scanner to pseudo-science to psyche. The SAGE Handbook of Gender and Psychology MK Ryan, NR Branscombe 45–60 London: Sage [Google Scholar]
  53. Fischer J, Anderson VN. 2012. Gender role attitudes and characteristics of stay-at-home and employed fathers. Psychol. Men Masc. 13:16–31 [Google Scholar]
  54. Fiske ST, Bersoff DN, Borgida E, Deaux K, Heilman ME. 1991. Social science research on trial: use of sex stereotyping research in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins. Am. Psychol. 46:1049–60 [Google Scholar]
  55. Fiske ST, Cuddy AC, Glick P, Xu J. 2002. A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 82:878–902 [Google Scholar]
  56. Fiske ST, Taylor SK. 2013. Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture London: Sage
  57. Folbre N. 2012. Should women care less? Intrinsic motivation and gender inequality. Br. J. Ind. Relat. 50:597–619 [Google Scholar]
  58. Fredrickson B, Roberts TA. 1997. Objectification theory: toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychol. Women Q. 21:173–206 [Google Scholar]
  59. Garcia D, Schmitt MT, Branscombe NR, Ellemers N. 2010. Women's reactions to ingroup members who protest discriminatory treatment: the importance of beliefs about inequality and response appropriateness. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 40:733–45 [Google Scholar]
  60. Glick P, Fiske ST, Mladinic A, Saiz J, Abrams D. et al. 2000. Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 79:763–75 [Google Scholar]
  61. Glick P, Sakalli-Ugurlu N, Ferreira MC, Souza MA. 2002. Ambivalent sexism and attitudes toward wife abuse in Turkey and Brazil. Psychol. Women Q. 26:292–97 [Google Scholar]
  62. Gordon I, Zagoory-Sharon O, Leckman JF, Feldman R. 2010. Oxytocin and the development of parenting in humans. Biol. Psychiatry 68:377–82 [Google Scholar]
  63. Greenwald AG, Banaji MR. 1995. Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychol. Rev. 102:4–27 [Google Scholar]
  64. Grunspan DZ, Eddy SL, Brownell SE, Wiggins BL, Crowe AJ, Goodreau SM. 2016. Males under-estimate academic performance of their female peers in undergraduate biology classrooms. PLOS ONE 11:e0148405 [Google Scholar]
  65. Hammond MD, Overall NC. 2015. Benevolent sexism and support of romantic partner's goals: undermining women's competence while fulfilling men's intimacy needs. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 41:1180–94 [Google Scholar]
  66. Handley IM, Brown ER, Moss-Racusin CA, Smith JA. 2015. Quality of evidence revealing subtle gender biases in science is in the eye of the beholder. PNAS 112:13201–6 [Google Scholar]
  67. Heflick N, Goldenberg J, Cooper D, Puvia E. 2011. From women to objects: appearance focus, target gender, and perceptions of warmth, morality and competence. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 47:572–81 [Google Scholar]
  68. Heilman ME, Haynes MC. 2005. No credit where credit is due: attributional rationalization of women's success in male-female teams. J. Appl. Psychol. 90:905–16 [Google Scholar]
  69. Heilman ME, Okimoto T. 2008. Motherhood: a potential source of bias in employment decisions. J. Appl. Psychol. 93:189–98 [Google Scholar]
  70. Hornsey MJ, Wellauer R, McIntyre JC, Barlow FK. 2015. A critical test of the assumption that men prefer conformist women and women prefer nonconformist men. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 41:755–68 [Google Scholar]
  71. Huang Y, Davies PG, Sibley CG, Osborne D. 2016. Benevolent sexism, attitudes toward motherhood, and reproductive rights: a multi-study longitudinal examination of abortion attitudes. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 42:970–84 [Google Scholar]
  72. Hyde J. 2014. Gender similarities and differences. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65:373–98 [Google Scholar]
  73. Ito TA, Urland GR. 2003. Race and gender on the brain: electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 85:616–26 [Google Scholar]
  74. Jarman J, Blackburn RM, Racko G. 2012. The dimensions of occupational gender segregation in industrial countries. Sociology 46:1003–19 [Google Scholar]
  75. Joel D, Berman Z, Tavor I, Wexler N, Gaber O. et al. 2015. Sex beyond the genitalia: the human brain mosaic. PNAS 112:15468–73 [Google Scholar]
  76. Joshi A, Son J, Roh H. 2015. When can women close the gap? A meta-analytic test of sex differences in performance and rewards. Acad. Manag. J. 58:1516–45 [Google Scholar]
  77. Kaiser CR, Major B, Jurcevic I, Dover TL, Brady LM, Shapiro JR. 2013. Presumed fair: ironic effects of organizational diversity structures. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 104:504–19 [Google Scholar]
  78. Kaiser CR, Miller CT. 2001. Stop complaining! The social costs of making attributions to discrimination. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 27:254–63 [Google Scholar]
  79. Kite ME, Deaux K, Haines EL. 2008. Gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women: A Handbook of Issues and Theories 2 FL Denmark, MA Paludi 205–36 New York: Praeger [Google Scholar]
  80. Klofstad CA, Anderson RC, Peters S. 2012. Sounds like a winner: Voice pitch influences perception of leadership capacity in both men and women. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 279:2698–704 [Google Scholar]
  81. Koenig AM, Eagly AH. 2005. Stereotype threat in men on a test of social sensitivity. Sex Roles 52:489–96 [Google Scholar]
  82. Krendl AC, Richeson JA, Kelley WM, Heatherton TF. 2008. The negative consequences of threat: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of the neural mechanisms underlying women's underperformance in math. Psychol. Sci. 19:168–75 [Google Scholar]
  83. Kulich C, Trojanowski G, Ryan MK, Haslam SA, Renneboog LDR. 2011. Who gets the carrot and who gets the stick? Evidence of gender disparities in executive remuneration. Strateg. Manag. J. 32:301–21 [Google Scholar]
  84. Leslie S-J, Cimpian A, Meyer M, Freeland E. 2015. Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines. Science 347:262–65 [Google Scholar]
  85. Lyness KS, Judiesch MK. 2014. Gender egalitarianism and work-life balance for managers: a multisource perspective in 36 countries. Appl. Psychol. Int. Rev. 63:96–129 [Google Scholar]
  86. Maass A. 1999. Linguistic intergroup bias: stereotype perpetuation through language. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 31:79–121 [Google Scholar]
  87. Maass A, Cadinu M, Guarnieri G, Grasselli A. 2003. Sexual harassment under social identity threat: the computer harassment paradigm. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 85:853–70 [Google Scholar]
  88. MacNell L, Driscoll A, Hunt AN. 2015. What's in a name: exposing gender bias in student ratings of teaching. Innov. High. Educ. 40:291–303 [Google Scholar]
  89. Matthews JL. 2007. Hidden sexism: facial prominence and its connections to gender and occupational status in popular print media. Sex Roles 57:515–25 [Google Scholar]
  90. Mayew WJ, Parsons CA, Venkatachalam M. 2013. Voice pitch and the labor market success of male chief executive officers. Evol. Hum. Behav. 34:243–48 [Google Scholar]
  91. Moss-Racusin CA, Dovidio JF, Brescoll VL, Graham MJ, Handelsman J. 2012. Science faculty's subtle gender biases favor male students. PNAS 109:16474–79 [Google Scholar]
  92. Moss-Racusin CA, Molenda AK, Cramer CR. 2015. Can evidence impact attitudes? Public reactions to evidence of gender bias in STEM fields. Psychol. Women Q. 39:194–209 [Google Scholar]
  93. Moss-Racusin CA, Phelan JE, Rudman LA. 2010. When men break the gender rules: status incongruity and backlash against modest men. Psychol. Men Masc. 11:140–51 [Google Scholar]
  94. Netchaeva E, Kouchaki M, Sheppard LD. 2015. A man's (precarious) place: men's experienced threat and self-assertive reactions to female superiors. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 41:1247–59 [Google Scholar]
  95. Oakes PJ, Haslam SA, Turner JC. 1994. Stereotyping and Social Reality Oxford, UK: Blackwell
  96. Park LE, Young AF, Eastwick PW. 2015. (Psychological) distance makes the heart grow fonder: effects of psychological distance and relative intelligence on men's attraction to women. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 41:1459–73 [Google Scholar]
  97. Peters K, Ryan MK, Haslam SA. 2015. Marines, medics, and machismo: Lack of fit with masculine occupational stereotypes discourages men's participation. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 106:635–55 [Google Scholar]
  98. Peters K, Ryan M, Haslam SA, Fernandes H. 2012. To belong or not to belong: evidence that women's occupational disidentification is promoted by lack of fit with masculine occupational prototypes. J. Personal. Psychol. 11:148–58 [Google Scholar]
  99. Plant TA, Hyde JS, Keltner D, Devine PC. 2000. The gender stereotyping of emotion. Psychol. Women Q. 24:81–92 [Google Scholar]
  100. Prentice DA, Carranza E. 2002. What women and men should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: the contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychol. Women Q. 57:269–81 [Google Scholar]
  101. Proudfoot D, Kay AC, Koval CZ. 2015. A gender bias in the attribution of creativity: archival and experimental evidence for the perceived association between masculinity and creative thinking. Psychol. Sci. 26:1751–61 [Google Scholar]
  102. Radke HRM, Hornsey MJ, Barlow FK. 2016. Barriers to women engaging in collective action to overcome sexism. Am. Psychol. 71:863–74 [Google Scholar]
  103. Ramos MR, Barreto M, Ellemers N, Moya M, Ferreira L. 2017. What hostile and benevolent sexism communicate about men's and women's warmth and competence. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. In press
  104. Ridgeway CL. 2001. Gender, status, and leadership. J. Soc. Issues 57:637–55 [Google Scholar]
  105. Ridgeway CL, Smith-Lovin L. 1999. The gender system and interaction. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 25:191–216 [Google Scholar]
  106. Riggs JM. 1997. Mandates for mothers and fathers: perceptions of breadwinners and care givers. Sex Roles 37:565–80 [Google Scholar]
  107. Rudman LA, Phelan JE. 2008. Backlash effects for disconfirming gender stereotypes in organizations. Res. Organ. Behav. 28:61–79 [Google Scholar]
  108. Ryan MK, Haslam SA. 2007. The glass cliff: exploring the dynamics surrounding the appointment of women to precarious leadership positions. Acad. Manag. Rev. 32:549–72 [Google Scholar]
  109. Scheepers D, Ellemers N, Sintemaartensdijk N. 2009. Suffering from the possibility of status loss: physiological responses to social identity threat in high status groups. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 39:1075–92 [Google Scholar]
  110. Schein VE, Mueller R, Lituchy T, Liu J. 1996. Think manager—think male: a global phenomenon. J. Organ. Behav. 17:33–41 [Google Scholar]
  111. Schmader T. 2002. Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 38:194–201 [Google Scholar]
  112. Schmader T, Johns M. 2003. Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 85:440–52 [Google Scholar]
  113. Schmader T, Johns M, Forbes C. 2008. An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychol. Rev. 115:336–56 [Google Scholar]
  114. Schmader T, Whitehead J, Wysocki VH. 2007. A linguistic comparison of letters of recommendation for male and female chemistry and biochemistry job applicants. Sex Roles 57:509–14 [Google Scholar]
  115. Schmitt MT, Branscombe NR. 2001. The good, the bad, and the manly: threats to one's prototypicality and evaluations of fellow in-group members. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 37:510–17 [Google Scholar]
  116. Ståhl T, Van Laar C, Ellemers N. 2012a. How stereotype threat affects cognitive performance under a prevention focus: Initial cognitive mobilization is followed by depletion. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 102:1239–51 [Google Scholar]
  117. Ståhl T, Van Laar C, Ellemers N, Derks B. 2012b. Searching for acceptance: Prejudice expectations direct attention towards social acceptance cues when under a promotion focus. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 15:523–38 [Google Scholar]
  118. Steffens MC, Jelenec P, Noack P. 2010. On the leaky math pipeline: comparing implicit math-gender stereotypes and math withdrawal in female and male children and adolescents. J. Educ. Psychol. 102:947–63 [Google Scholar]
  119. Stephens NM, Levine CS. 2011. Opting out or denying discrimination? How the framework of free choice in American society influences perceptions of gender inequality. Psychol. Sci. 22:1231–36 [Google Scholar]
  120. Stroebe K, Barreto M, Ellemers N. 2010. Experiencing discrimination: how members of disadvantaged groups can be helped to cope with discrimination. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 4:181–213 [Google Scholar]
  121. Swim JK, Sanna LJ. 1996. He's skilled, she's lucky: a meta-analysis of observers' attributions for women's and men's successes and failure. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 22:509–19 [Google Scholar]
  122. Tiedemann J. 2000. Gender-related beliefs of teachers in elementary school mathematics. Educ. Stud. Math. 41:191–207 [Google Scholar]
  123. Treviño LJ, Gomez-Mejia LR, Balkin DB, Mixon FG. 2015. Meritocracies or masculinities? The differential allocation of named professorships by gender in the academy. J. Manag. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315599216 [Google Scholar]
  124. Van der Lee R, Ellemers N. 2015. Gender contributes to personal research funding success in the Netherlands. PNAS 112:12349–53 [Google Scholar]
  125. Van der Pol LD, Groeneveld MG, Van Berkel SR, Endendijk JE, Hallers-Haalboom ET. et al. 2015. Fathers’ and mothers’ emotion talk with their girls and boys from toddlerhood to preschool age. Emotion 15:854–64 [Google Scholar]
  126. Van Honk J, Terburg D, Bos PA. 2011. Further notes on testosterone as a social hormone. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15:291–92 [Google Scholar]
  127. Van Steenbergen E, Ellemers N. 2009. Is managing the work–family interface worthwhile? Benefits for employee health and performance. J. Organ. Behav. 30:617–42 [Google Scholar]
  128. Ward LM, Harrison K. 2005. The impact of media use on girls' beliefs about gender roles, their bodies, and sexual relationships: a research synthesis. Featuring Females: Feminist Analyses of Media E Cole, JH Daniel 3–23 Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc. [Google Scholar]
  129. Wigboldus DHJ, Dijksterhuis A, Van Knippenberg A. 2003. When stereotypes get in the way: Stereotypes obstruct stereotype-inconsistent trait inferences. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 84:470–84 [Google Scholar]
  130. Wigboldus DHJ, Semin GR, Spears R. 2000. How do we communicate stereotypes? Linguistic bases and inferential consequences. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 78:5–18 [Google Scholar]
  131. Williams JC, Berdahl JL, Vandello JA. 2016. Beyond work-life “integration.”. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 67:515–39 [Google Scholar]
  132. Williams JC, Dempsey R. 2014. What Works for Women at Work: Four Patterns Working Women Need to Know New York: NYU Press
  133. Williams MJ, Tiedens LZ. 2016. The subtle suspension of backlash: a meta-analysis of penalties for women's implicit and explicit dominance behavior. Psychol. Bull. 142:165–97 [Google Scholar]
  134. Wong YJ, Ho M-HR, Wang S-Y, Miller ISK. 2017. Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes. J. Couns. Psychol. 64:80–93 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error