1932

Abstract

Sacrifice is one of the most common manifestations of human religious thought and behavior, yet archaeology has only recently begun to devote significant attention to the practice. This article reviews the diverse ways in which archaeologists have studied sacrifice and how work might proceed in the future. Both animal and human sacrifice are considered, along with the question of whether these two manifestations of ritual killing are significantly distinct. After examining how sacrifice can be identified in the archaeological record, the review outlines important new developments in bioarchaeology and zooarchaeology that facilitate study of the geographical origin of victims, lifestyle, and health prior to sacrifice, preparations for sacrifice, methods of ritual killing, and postmortem treatment. Proceeding beyond the mechanics of the practice, the article discusses how archaeologists can study sacrifice in its social context as well as its spatial and temporal dimensions.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041434
2017-10-23
2024-10-05
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/anthro/46/1/annurev-anthro-102116-041434.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041434&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Agarwal SC, Glencross BA. 2011. Social Bioarchaeology Malden: Wiley-Blackwell [Google Scholar]
  2. Alva W, Donnan CB. 1993. Royal Tombs of Sipán Los Angeles: Fowler Mus. Cult. History, Univ. Calif. Los Angel. [Google Scholar]
  3. Argent G. 2010. Do clothes make the horse? Relationality, roles and statuses in Iron Age Inner Asia. World Archaeol 42:157–74 [Google Scholar]
  4. Baadsgaard A, Monge J, Cox S, Zettler R. 2011. Human sacrifice and intentional corpse preservation in the Royal Cemetery of Ur. Antiquity 85:27–42 [Google Scholar]
  5. Baadsgaard A, Monge J, Zettler R. 2012. Bludgeoned, burned, and beautified: reevaluating mortuary practices in the Royal Cemetery of Ur. See Porter & Schwartz 2012 125–58
  6. Barrowclough D, Malone C. 2007. Cult in Context: Reconsidering Ritual in Archaeology Oxford, UK: Oxbow [Google Scholar]
  7. Beattie JHM. 1980. On understanding sacrifice. Sacrifice MFC Bourdillon, M Fortes 31–44 New York: Academic [Google Scholar]
  8. Bell C. 1992. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  9. Bell C. 2007. Response: defining the need for a definition. See Kyriakidis 2007 277–88
  10. Bell C. 2009. Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  11. Benson EP, Cook AG. 2001. Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru Austin: Univ. Tex. Press [Google Scholar]
  12. Bentley S, Klaus HD. 2016. Reconsidering retainers: identity, death, and sacrifice in high-status funerary contexts on the north coast of Peru. See Klaus & Toyne 2016 266–90
  13. Besom T. 2013. Inka Human Sacrifice and Mountain Worship: Strategies for Empire Unification Albuquerque: Univ. N. M. Press [Google Scholar]
  14. Blok J. 2009. Citizenship in action: “reading” sacrifice in Classical Athens. Rollenbilder in der athenischen Demokratie: Medien, Gruppen, Räume im politischen und sozialen System C Mann, M Haake, R von den Hoff 89–111 Wiesbaden, Ger.: Reichert Verlag [Google Scholar]
  15. Bourget S. 2016. Sacrifice, Violence and Ideology Among the Moche: The Rise of Social Complexity in Ancient Peru Austin: Univ. Tex. Press [Google Scholar]
  16. Bradley R. 2005. Ritual and Domestic Life in Prehistoric Europe New York: Routledge [Google Scholar]
  17. Burkert W. 1983. Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press [Google Scholar]
  18. Buzon MR, Judd MA. 2008. Investigating health at Kerma: sacrificial versus nonsacrificial individuals. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 136:93–99 [Google Scholar]
  19. Campbell RB. 2012. On sacrifice: an archaeology of Shang sacrifice. See Porter & Schwartz 2012 305–24
  20. Campbell RB. 2014a. Transformations of violence: on humanity and inhumanity in early China. See Campbell 2014b 94–118
  21. Campbell RB. 2014b. Violence and Civilization: Studies of Social Violence in History and Prehistory Oxford, UK: Oxbow [Google Scholar]
  22. Carrasco D. 1999. City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization Boston: Beacon [Google Scholar]
  23. Carter E. 2012. On human and animal sacrifice in the Late Neolithic at Domuztepe. See Porter & Schwartz 2012 97–104
  24. Castillo LJ. 2001. The last of the Mochicas: a view from the Jequetepeque valley. Moche Art and Archaeology in Ancient Peru J Pillsbury 307–32 Washington, DC: Natl. Gallery Art [Google Scholar]
  25. Chávez Balderas X. 2014. Sacrifice at the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan and its role in regard to warfare. See Scherer & Verano 2014 171–87
  26. Chenal-Velarde I, Studer J. 2003. Archaeozoology in a ritual context: the case of a sacrificial altar in Geometric Eretria. See Kotjabopoulou et al. 2003 215–20
  27. Cook AG. 2001. Huari D-shaped structures, sacrificial offerings, and divine rulership. See Benson & Cook 2001 137–64
  28. Cucina A, Tiesler V. 2007a. New perspectives on human sacrifice and postsacrificial body treatments in ancient Maya society: an introduction. See Tiesler & Cucina 2007 1–13
  29. Cucina A, Tiesler V. 2007b. Nutrition, lifestyle, and social status of skeletal remains from nonfunerary and “problematical” contexts. See Tiesler & Cucina 2007 251–62
  30. Demarest AA. 1984. Overview: Mesoamerican human sacrifice in evolutionary perspective. Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica E Boone 227–34 Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Res. Libr. Collect. [Google Scholar]
  31. Detienne M. 1977. La viande et le sacrifice en Grèce ancienne. La Rech 8:152–60 [Google Scholar]
  32. Detienne M. 1989. Culinary practices and the spirit of sacrifice. The Cuisine of Sacrifice Among the Greeks M Detienne, J-P Vernant 1–20 Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  33. Dickson DB. 2006. Public transcripts expressed in theatres of cruelty: the royal graves at Ur in Mesopotamia. Camb. Archaeol. J. 16:123–44 [Google Scholar]
  34. Donnan CB. 2010. Moche state religion: a unifying force in Moche political organization. New Perspectives on Moche Political Organization J Quilter, JL Castillo 47–69 Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks [Google Scholar]
  35. Duncan WN. 2012. Biological distance analysis in contexts of ritual violence. See Martin et al. 2012 251–75
  36. Ekroth G. 2005. Blood on the altars? On the treatment of blood at Greek sacrifices and iconographical evidence. Antike Kunst 48:9–29 [Google Scholar]
  37. Ekroth G. 2008. Burnt, cooked or raw? Divine and human culinary desires at Greek animal sacrifice. Transformations in Sacrificial Practices: From Antiquity to Modern Times E Stavrianopoulou, A Michaels, C Ambos 87–112 Berlin: Lit Verlag Dr. W. Hopf [Google Scholar]
  38. Ekroth G. 2014. Animal sacrifice in antiquity. The Oxford Handbook of Animals in Classical Thought and Life GL Campbell 324–54 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  39. Elsner J. 2012. Sacrifice in late Roman art. See Faraone & Naiden 2012 120–63
  40. Emerson TE, Hedman KM, Hargrave EA, Cobb DE, Thompson AR. 2016. Paradigms lost: reconfiguring Cahokia's Mound 72 beaded burial. Am. Antiq. 81:405–25 [Google Scholar]
  41. Faraone CA, Naiden FS. 2012. Greek and Roman Animal Sacrifice: Ancient Victims, Modern Observers Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  42. Fogelin L. 2007. The archaeology of religious ritual. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 36:55–71 [Google Scholar]
  43. Forstenpointner G. 2003. Promethean legacy: investigations into the ritual procedure of ‘Olympian’ sacrifice. See Kotjabopoulou et al. 2003 203–13
  44. Gebauer J. 2002. Pompe und Thysia. Attische Tieropferdarstellungen auf schwarz- und rotfiguren Vasen Münster, Ger.: Ugarit-Verlag [Google Scholar]
  45. Gebhard ER, Reese DS. 2005. Sacrifices for Poseidon and Melikertes-Palaimon at Isthmia. Greek Sacrificial Ritual, Olympian and Chthonian R Hägg, B Alroth 125–54 Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag [Google Scholar]
  46. Girard R. 1977. Violence and the Sacred Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  47. Graulich M. 2005. Le sacrifice humain chez les Aztèques Paris: Fayard [Google Scholar]
  48. Hamilakis Y. 2013. Archaeology and the Senses: Human Experience, Memory, and Affect Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  49. Hamilakis Y, Konsolaki E. 2004. Pigs for the gods: burnt animal sacrifices as embodied rituals at a Mycenaean sanctuary. Oxford J. Archaeol. 23:135–51 [Google Scholar]
  50. Hamilton LS. 2016. Ritual killing, mutilation, and dismemberment at Huaca de la Luna: sharp force trauma among Moche sacrifice victims in Plazas 3A and 3C. See Klaus & Toyne 2016 29–63
  51. Hansen L. 2016. The myth of the willing human sacrificial victim in ancient Mesoamerica: transformation of the symbolic complex of ritual sacrifice in ancient Oaxaca and Teotihuacan Presented at Annu. Meet. Soc. Am. Archaeol. Orlando: [Google Scholar]
  52. Hesse B, Wapnish P, Greer J. 2012. Scripts of animal sacrifice in Levantine culture-history. See Porter & Schwartz 2012 217–36
  53. Hikade T, Roy J. 2015. Human sacrifice in pre-and early dynastic Egypt: What do you want to find?. Not Sparing the Child: Human Sacrifice in the Ancient World and Beyond D Arbel, P Burns, J Cousland, R Menkis, D Neufeld 18–51 London: Bloomsbury [Google Scholar]
  54. Hollimon SE. 2011. Sex and gender in bioarchaeological research: theory, method, and interpretation. See Agarwal & Glencross 2011 147–82
  55. Houston S, Newman S, Roman E, Garrison T, Carter N. et al. 2015. Temple of the Night Sun: A Royal Maya Tomb at El Diablo, Guatemala San Francisco: Precolumbia Mesoweb Press [Google Scholar]
  56. Houston S, Stuart D, Taube K. 2006. The Memory of Bones: Body, Being and Experience Among the Classic Maya Austin: Univ. Tex. Press [Google Scholar]
  57. Hubert H, Mauss M. 1964. Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  58. Humphrey C, Laidlaw J. 2007. Sacrifice and ritualization. See Kyriakidis 2007 255–76
  59. Ingham JM. 1984. Human sacrifice at Tenochtitlan. Comp. Stud. Soc. Hist. 26:379–400 [Google Scholar]
  60. Inomata T, Coben LS. 2006. Archaeology of Performance: Theaters of Power, Community and Politics Lanham, MD: AltaMira [Google Scholar]
  61. Insoll T. 2004. Archaeology, Ritual, Religion London: Routledge [Google Scholar]
  62. Insoll T. 2009. Materializing performance and ritual: decoding the archaeology of movement in Tallensi shrines in northern Ghana. Mater. Relig. 5:288–310 [Google Scholar]
  63. Insoll T. 2011a. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  64. Insoll T. 2011b. Sacrifice. See Insoll 2011a 151–65
  65. Isaakidou V, Halstead P, Davis J, Sharon S. 2002. Burnt animal sacrifice at the Mycenaean “Palace of Nestor,” Pylos. Antiquity 76:86–92 [Google Scholar]
  66. Jameson MH. 1966. The omen of the ox-tail. Sci. Am. 241:54 [Google Scholar]
  67. Jameson MH. 1988. Sacrifice and animal husbandry in classical Greece. Pastoral Economies in Classical Antiquity CR Whittaker 87–119 Proc. Cambr. Philol. Soc. Suppl. 14 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Philol. Soc. [Google Scholar]
  68. Jay N. 1985. Sacrifice as remedy for having been born of woman. Immaculate and Powerful: The Female in Sacred Image and Social Reality CW Atkinson, CH Buchanan, MR Miles 283–309 Boston: Beacon Press [Google Scholar]
  69. Jay N. 1992. Throughout Your Generations Forever: Sacrifice, Religion and Paternity Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  70. Judd M, Irish J. 2009. Dying to serve: the mass burials at Kerma. Antiquity 83:709–22 [Google Scholar]
  71. Keane W. 2008. The evidence of the senses and the materiality of religion. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. 14:S110–27 [Google Scholar]
  72. Klaus HD, Shimada I. 2016. Bodies and blood: Middle Sicán human sacrifice in the Lambayeque Valley Complex (AD 900–1100). See Klaus & Toyne 2016 120–49
  73. Klaus HD, Toyne JM. 2016. Ritual Violence in the Ancient Andes: Reconstructing Sacrifice on the North Coast of Peru Austin: Univ. Tex. Press [Google Scholar]
  74. Klaus HD, Turner BJ, Saldaña F, Castillo S, Wester C. 2016. Human sacrifice at the Chotuna Chornancap archaeological complex: traditions and transformations of ritual violence under Chimú and Inka rule. See Klaus & Toyne 2016 178–210
  75. Knight J. 2005. Animals in Person: Cultural Perspectives on Human-Animal Intimacy Oxford, UK: Berg [Google Scholar]
  76. Knust JW, Várhelyi Z. 2011a. Ancient Mediterranean Sacrifice Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  77. Knust JW, Várhelyi Z. 2011b. Introduction. See Knust & Várhelyi 2011a 3–31
  78. Kotjabopoulou E, Hamilakis Y, Halstead P, Gamble P, Elefanti P. 2003. Zooarchaeology in Greece: Recent Advances London: Br. Sch. Athens [Google Scholar]
  79. Koziol K. 2012. Performances of imposed status: captivity at Cahokia. See Martin et al. 2012 226–50
  80. Kozuh M. 2014. The Sacrificial Economy: Assessors, Contractors, and Thieves in the Management of Sacrificial Sheep at the Eanna Temple of Uruk (ca. 625–520 B.C.) Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns [Google Scholar]
  81. Kron H. 2006. Human sacrifice among the Maya: an analysis of patterns in Belize. Totem 14: Art 5 [Google Scholar]
  82. Kyriakidis E. 2007. The Archaeology of Ritual Los Angeles: Cotsen Inst. Archaeol. [Google Scholar]
  83. Laneri N. 2010. Connecting fragments: a sensorial approach to the materialization of religious beliefs in rural Mesopotamia at the beginning of the second millennium BC. Camb. Archaeol. J. 21:77–94 [Google Scholar]
  84. Magnell O. 2011. Sacred cows or old beasts? A taphonomic approach to studying ritual killing with an example from Iron Age Uppåkra, Sweden. The Ritual Killing and Burial of Animals: European Perspectives192–204 Oxford, UK: Oxbow [Google Scholar]
  85. Martin D, Harrod R, Pérez V. 2012. The Bioarchaeology of Violence Gainesville: Univ. Fla. Press [Google Scholar]
  86. Masuzawa T. 2012. The Invention of World Religions, or How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  87. McClymond K. 2008. Beyond Sacred Violence: A Comparative Study of Sacrifice Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  88. Méniel P. 2015. Killing and preparing animals. See Raja & Rüpke 2015 155–66
  89. Miller D. 2005. Materiality, an introduction. Materiality D Miller 1–50 Durham: Duke Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  90. Molleson T, Hodgson D. 2003. The human remains from Woolley's excavations at Ur. Iraq 65:91–129 [Google Scholar]
  91. Monaghan J. 1990. Sacrifice, death, and the origins of agriculture in the Codex Vienna. Am. Antiq. 55:559–69 [Google Scholar]
  92. Monaghan JD. 1995. The Covenants with Earth and Rain: Exchange, Sacrifice and Revelation in Mixtec Sociality Norman: Univ. Okla. Press [Google Scholar]
  93. Morris EF. 2007. Sacrifice for the state: First Dynasty royal funerals and the rites at Macramallah's Rectangle. Performing Death: Social Analyses of Funerary Traditions in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean N Laneri 15–38 Chicago: Orient. Inst. [Google Scholar]
  94. Morris EF. 2014. (Un)dying loyalty: meditations on retainer sacrifice in ancient Egypt and elsewhere. See Campbell 2014b 61–93
  95. Morton J. 2015. The experience of Greek sacrifice: investigating fat-wrapped thigh bones. Autopsy in Athens MM Miles 66–75 Oxford, UK: Oxbow [Google Scholar]
  96. Murphy JMA. 2008. Tradition in contexts: a reassessment of the canonical acceptance of art as religion in Proto-Palatial Phaistos. Religion, Archaeology and the Material World L Fogelin 61–77 Carbondale: South. Ill. Univ., Cent. Archaeol. Investig. [Google Scholar]
  97. Murray CA. 2016. Diversity of Sacrifice: Form and Function of Sacrificial Practices in the Ancient World and Beyond Albany: State Univ. N. Y. Press [Google Scholar]
  98. Naiden FS. 2012. Blessed are the parasites. See Faraone & Naiden 2012 55–83
  99. Neer R. 2012. Sacrificing stones: on some sculpture, mostly Athenian. See Faraone & Naiden 2012 99–119
  100. Overton NJ, Hamilakis Y. 2013. A manifesto for a social zooarchaeology: swans and other beings in the Mesolithic. Archaeol. Dialogues 20:111–36 [Google Scholar]
  101. Pijoan CM, Mansilla Lory J. 1997. Evidence for human sacrifice, bone modification and cannibalism in ancient Mexico. Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past DL Martin, DW Frayer 217–40 Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach [Google Scholar]
  102. Porter A. 2012. Mortal mirrors: creating kin through human sacrifice in third-millennium Syro-Mesopotamia. See Porter & Schwartz 2012 191–216
  103. Porter A, Schwartz GM. 2012. Sacred Killing: The Archaeology of Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns [Google Scholar]
  104. Purdum ED, Paredes A. 1989. Rituals of death: capital punishment and human sacrifice. Facing the Death Penalty: Essays on Cruel and Unusual Punishment M Radelet 139–55 Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  105. Raja R, Rüpke J. 2015. A Companion to the Archaeology of Religion in the Ancient World Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell [Google Scholar]
  106. Recht L. 2014. Symbolic order: liminality and simulation in human sacrifice in the Bronze Age Aegean and Near East. J. Relig. Violence 2:403–32 [Google Scholar]
  107. Recht L. 2015. Identifying sacrifice in Bronze Age Near Eastern iconography. Defining the Sacred N Laneri 24–37 Oxford, UK: Oxbow [Google Scholar]
  108. Reinhard J, Ceruti MC. 2010. Inca Rituals and Sacred Mountains: A Study of the World's Highest Archaeological Sites Los Angeles: Cotsen Inst. Archaeol., Univ. Calif. Los Angel. [Google Scholar]
  109. Renfrew C. 1985. The Archaeology of Cult: The Sanctuary at Phylakopi London: Thames and Hudson [Google Scholar]
  110. Renfrew C. 2007. The archaeology of ritual, of cult, and of religion. See Kyriakidis 2007 109–22
  111. Ritvo H. 2007. On the animal turn. Daedalus 136:118–22 [Google Scholar]
  112. Russell N. 2012. Social Zooarchaeology: Humans and Animals in Prehistory Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  113. Schele L, Miller ME. 1986. The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art Fort Worth, TX: Kimbell Art Mus. [Google Scholar]
  114. Scherer AK, Verano JW. 2014. Embattled Bodies, Embattled Places: War in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and the Andes Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks [Google Scholar]
  115. Schilbrack K. 2010. Religions: Are there any?. J. Am. Acad. Relig. 78:1112–38 [Google Scholar]
  116. Schilbrack K. 2012. The social construction of “religion” and its limits: a critical reading of Timothy Fitzgerald. Method Theory Study Relig 24:97–117 [Google Scholar]
  117. Schwartz GM. 2012. Archaeology and sacrifice. See Porter & Schwartz 2012 1–32
  118. Schwartz GM. 2013. Memory and its demolition: ancestors, animals, and sacrifice at Umm el-Marra, Syria. Camb. Archaeol. J. 23:495–522 [Google Scholar]
  119. Schwartz JH. 2016. The mythology of Carthaginian child sacrifice: a physical anthropological perspective. See Murray 2016 103–26
  120. Shimada I, Shinoda K, Farnum J, Corruccini R, Watanabe H. 2004. An integrated analysis of Pre-Hispanic mortuary practices: a Middle Sicán case study. Curr. Anthropol. 45:369–402 [Google Scholar]
  121. Smith ME. 2012. The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  122. Smith P, Avishai G, Greene JA, Stager LE. 2011. Aging cremated infants: the problem of sacrifice at the Tophet of Carthage. Antiquity 85:859–74 [Google Scholar]
  123. Smith TJ. 2016. The art of ancient Greek sacrifice: spectacle, gaze, performance. See Murray 2016 127–44
  124. Smith WR. 1894. The Religion of the Semites: The Fundamental Institutions London: A. and C. Black [Google Scholar]
  125. Steadman SR. 2009. Archaeology of Religion: Cultures and Their Beliefs in Worldwide Context Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press [Google Scholar]
  126. Sugiyama N, Pérez G, Rodríguez B, Torres F, Valadez R. 2014. Animals and the state: the role of animals in state-level rituals in Mesoamerica. Animals and Inequality in the Ancient World BS Arbuckle, SA McCarty 11–31 Boulder: Univ. Press Colo. [Google Scholar]
  127. Sugiyama S. 2005. Human Sacrifice, Militarism and Rulership: Materialization of State Ideology at the Feathered Serpent Pyramid, Teotihuacan Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  128. Sugiyama S. 2011. Interactions between the living and the dead at major monuments in Teotihuacan. Living with the Dead: Mortuary Ritual in Mesoamerica JL Fitzsimmons, I Shimada 161–202 Tucson: Univ. Ariz. Press [Google Scholar]
  129. Swenson E. 2014. Dramas of the dialectic: sacrifice and power in ancient polities. See Campbell 2014b 28–60
  130. Swenson E. 2015. The archaeology of ritual. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 44:329–45 [Google Scholar]
  131. Szpak P, Millaire J-F, White C, Bourget S, Longstaffe F. 2016. Life histories of sacrificed camelids from Huancaco (Virú Valley). See Klaus & Toyne 2016 319–41
  132. Tatlock J. 2006. How in ancient times they sacrificed people: human immolation in the Eastern Mediterranean basin with special emphasis on Israel and the ancient Near East PhD Thesis Univ. Mich. [Google Scholar]
  133. Testart A. 2004. La servitude volontaire I Les morts d'accompagnement Paris: Errance [Google Scholar]
  134. Tiesler V. 2007. Funerary or nonfunerary? New references in identifying ancient Maya sacrificial and postsacrificial behaviors from human assemblages. See Tiesler & Cucina 2007 14–45
  135. Tiesler V, Cucina A. 2007. New Perspectives on Human Sacrifice and Ritual Body Treatments in Ancient Maya Society New York: Springer [Google Scholar]
  136. Tomasto-Cagigao E, Lund M, Castillo LJ, Fehren-Schmitz L. 2016. Human sacrifice: a view from San José de Moro. See Klaus & Toyne 2016 291–314
  137. Townsend P. 2011. Bonds of flesh and blood: porphyry, animal sacrifice, and empire. See Knust & Várhelyi 2011a 214–31
  138. Toyne JM. 2016. Life before death: a paleopathological examination of human sacrifice at the Templo de la Piedra Sagrada, Túcume, Peru. See Klaus & Toyne 2016 215–43
  139. Trigger BG. 2003. Understanding Early Civilizations Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  140. Tung TA. 2012. Violence against women: differential treatment of local and foreign females in the heartland of the Wari empire, Peru. See Martin et al. 2012 180–98
  141. Tylor E. 1874. Primitive Culture: Researches in the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Arts, and Custom New York: Holt [Google Scholar]
  142. van Baal J. 1976. Offering, sacrifice, gift. Numen 23:161–78 [Google Scholar]
  143. van Straten FT. 1995. Hierà Kalá: Images of Animal Sacrifices in Archaic and Classical Greece Leiden, Neth.: E.J. Brill [Google Scholar]
  144. Verano JW. 1995. Where do they rest? The treatment of human offerings and trophies in ancient Peru. Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices T Dillehay 189–228 Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Libr. Collect. [Google Scholar]
  145. Verano JW. 2001. The physical evidence of human sacrifice in ancient Peru. See Benson & Cook 2001 165–84
  146. Verano JW. 2014. Warfare and captive sacrifice in the Moche culture. See Scherer & Verano 2014 283–309
  147. Verano JW, Phillips SS. 2016. The killing of captives on the north coast of Peru in pre-Hispanic times: iconographic and biological evidence. See Klaus & Toyne 2016 244–65
  148. Verdugo C, Kassadjikova K, Washburn E, Harkins KM, Fehren-Schmitz L. 2016. Ancient DNA clarifies osteological analyses of commingled remains from Midnight Terror Cave, Belize. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2550 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  149. Viveiros de Castro E. 1998. Cosmological deixis and Amerindian perspectivism. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. 4:469–88 [Google Scholar]
  150. von den Driesch A. 1994. Tierknochenfunde vom Auerberg. Der Auerberg, I. Topographie, Forschungsgeschichte und Wallgrabungen G Ulbert 213–29 Münchner Beitr. Vor- Frühgeschichte 45 Munich: C.H. Beck'sche Verl. [Google Scholar]
  151. Watts J, Sheehan O, Atkinson QD, Bulbulia J, Gray RD. 2016. Ritual human sacrifice promoted and sustained the evolution of stratified societies. Nature 532:228–31 [Google Scholar]
  152. Weber JA. 2012. Restoring order: death, display, and authority. See Porter & Schwartz 2012 159–90
  153. Welsh WBM. 1988. A case for the practice of human sacrifice among the Classic Lowland Maya. Recent Studies in Pre-Columbian Archaeology NJ Saunders, O de Montmollin 143–65 Int. Ser. No 4211 Oxford, UK: Br. Archaeol. Rep. [Google Scholar]
  154. Wessing R, Jordaan RE. 1997. Death at the building site: construction sacrifice in Southeast Asia. Hist. Relig. 37:101–21 [Google Scholar]
  155. Whitley DS, Hays-Gilpin K. 2008. Belief in the Past: Theoretical Approaches to the Archaeology of Religion Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast [Google Scholar]
  156. Wilks I. 1975. Asante in the Nineteenth Century: The Structure and Evolution of a Political Order Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  157. Willerslev R. 2007. Soul Hunters: Hunting, Animism, and Personhood Among the Siberian Yukaghirs Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press [Google Scholar]
  158. Wilson AS, Brown EL, Villa C, Lynnerup N, Healey A. et al. 2013. Archaeological, radiological, and biological evidence offer insight into Inca child sacrifice. PNAS 110:13322–27 [Google Scholar]
  159. Wilson AS, Taylor T, Ceruti MC, Chavez JA, Reinhard J. et al. 2007. Stable isotope and DNA evidence for ritual sequences in Inca child sacrifice. PNAS 104:16456–61 [Google Scholar]
  160. Yoffee N. 2005. Myths of the Archaic State: Evolution of the Earliest Cities, States, and Civilizations Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  161. Zuckerman MK, Armelagos GJ. 2011. The origins of biocultural dimensions in bioarchaeology. See Agarwal & Glencross 2011 15–43
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041434
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error