1932

Abstract

Availability of safe drinking water, a vital natural resource, is still a distant dream to many around the world, especially in developing countries. Increasing human activity and industrialization have led to a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological pollutants entering water bodies and affecting human lives. Efforts to develop efficient, economical, and technologically sound methods to produce clean water for developing countries have increased worldwide. We focus on solar disinfection, filtration, hybrid filtration methods, treatment of harvested rainwater, herbal water disinfection, and arsenic removal technologies. Simple, yet innovative water treatment devices ranging from use of plant xylem as filters, terafilters, and hand pumps to tippy taps designed indigenously are methods mentioned here. By describing the technical aspects of major water disinfection methods relevant for developing countries on medium to small scales and emphasizing their merits, demerits, economics, and scalability, we highlight the current scenario and pave the way for further research and development and scaling up of these processes.

This review focuses on clean drinking water, especially for rural populations in developing countries. It describes various water disinfection techniques that are not only economically viable and energy efficient but also employ simple methodologies that are effective in reducing the physical, chemical, and biological pollutants found in drinking water to acceptable limits.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-061114-123432
2015-07-24
2024-12-04
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/chembioeng/6/1/annurev-chembioeng-061114-123432.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-061114-123432&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. World Health Organ 2014. Health Through Safe Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation Geneva, Switz: World Health Organ http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/mdg1/en/ [Google Scholar]
  2. 2. Joint Monit. Progr 2014. Progress on Drinking-Water and Sanitation 2014 Update. Geneva, Switz: Water Sanit. Hyg. Health http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-report2014Table_Final.pdf [Google Scholar]
  3. 3.  Riva MA, Lafranconi A, D'Orso MI, Cesana G. 2012. Lead poisoning: historical aspects of a paradigmatic occupational and environmental disease. Saf. Health Work 3:111–16 [Google Scholar]
  4. 4. Pollutionprobe 2004. The Drinking Water Primer Ontario, Can: Pollutionprobe http://www.pollutionprobe.org/report/dwprimerall.pdf [Google Scholar]
  5. 5.  Fawell J, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ. 2003. Contaminants in drinking water. Br. Med. Bull. 68:199–208 [Google Scholar]
  6. 6.  Jyoti KK, Pandit AB. 2013. Drinking Water Disinfection Techniques New York: CRC Press [Google Scholar]
  7. 7.  Jeffrey WH, Aas P, Lyons MM, Coffin RB, Pledger RJ, Mitchell DL. 1996. Ambient solar radiation-induced photodamage in marine bacterioplankton. Photochem. Photobiol. 64:419–27 [Google Scholar]
  8. 8.  Ciochetti D, Metcalfe R. 1984. Pasteurization of naturally contaminated water with solar energy. Appl. Env. Microbiol. 47:223–28 [Google Scholar]
  9. 9.  Downes A, Blunt TP. 1887. Researches on the effects of light upon Bacteria and other organisms. Proc. R. Soc. 28:488–501 [Google Scholar]
  10. 10.  Morley D. 1988. Sunlight and drinking water. Lancet 332:686 [Google Scholar]
  11. 11.  Reed RH. 1997. Solar inactivation of fecal bacteria in water: the critical role of oxygen. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 4:276–80 [Google Scholar]
  12. 12.  Davies-Colley RG, Bell RG, Donnison AM. 1994. Sunlight inactivation of enterococci and fecal coliforms in sewage effluent diluted in seawater. Appl. Env. Microbiol. 60:2049–58 [Google Scholar]
  13. 13.  Wegelin M. 1999. Solar water disinfection through plastic bottles. Source Bull. 4, April [Google Scholar]
  14. 14. SODIS Found 1998. Notas Técnicas No. 1. Cochabamba-Bolivia: SODIS [Google Scholar]
  15. 15. Am. Water Works Assoc 1999. Water Quality and Treatment Mexico City: McGraw-Hill, 5th ed.. [Google Scholar]
  16. 16.  Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce T, McGuigan K, Barnes J. 1999. Solar disinfection of water reduces diarrheal disease: an update. Arch. Dis. Child. 81:4337–38 [Google Scholar]
  17. 17.  McGuigan KG, Joyce TM, Conroy RM, Gillespie JB, Elmore-Meegan M. 1998. Solar disinfection of drinking water contained in transparent plastic bottles: characterizing the bacterial inactivation process. J. Appl. Microbiol. 84:61138–48 [Google Scholar]
  18. 18.  Sommer B. 1995. Solar Water Disinfection: Impact on vibrio cholerae and fecal coliforms. Workshop Results organized by: CINARA- Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia EAWAG/SANDEC, Dübendorf, Switz.
  19. 19.  Chilvers KF, Reed RH, Perry JD. 1999. Phototoxicity of rose bengal in mycological media—implications for laboratory practice. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 28:103–7 [Google Scholar]
  20. 20.  Harper JC, Christensen PA, Egerton TA, Curtis TP, Guzlazuardi J. 2001. Effect of catalyst type on the kinetics of the photoelectrochemical disinfection of water inoculated with E. coli. J. Appl. Electrochem. 31:623–28 [Google Scholar]
  21. 21.  Ollis E, Pelizzetti E, Serpone N. 1991. Destruction of water contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25:1523–29 [Google Scholar]
  22. 22.  Duffy E, Al-Touati F, Kehoe SC, McLoughlin OA, Gill L. et al. 2004. A novel TiQ2-assisted solar photocatalytic batch-process disinfection reactor for the treatment of biological and chemical contaminants in domestic drinking water in developing countries. Solar Energy 77:266–70 [Google Scholar]
  23. 23.  Salih FM. 2003. Enhancement of solar inactivation of Escherichia coli by titanium dioxide photocatalytic oxidation. J. Appl. Microbiol. 92:920–26 [Google Scholar]
  24. 24.  Christiansen PA, Curtis TP, Egerton TA, Kosa SAM, Tinlin JR. 2003. Photoelectrocatalytic and photocatalytic disinfection of E. coli suspensions by titanium dioxide. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 41:371–86 [Google Scholar]
  25. 25.  Ibáñez JA, Litter MI, Pizarro RA. 2003. Photocatalytic bactericidal effect of TiO2 on Enterobacter cloacae: comparative study with other Gram (–) bacteria. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A Chem. 157:81–85 [Google Scholar]
  26. 26.  Sun DD, Tay JH, Tan KM. 2003. Photocatalytic degradation of E. coliform in water. Water Res. 37:3452–62 [Google Scholar]
  27. 27.  Lonnen J, Kilvington S, Kehoe SC, Al-Touati F, McGuigan KG. 2005. Solar and photocatalytic disinfection of protozoan, fungal and bacterial microbes in drinking water. Water Res. 39:5877–83 [Google Scholar]
  28. 28.  Watts RJ, Kong S, Orr MP, Miller GC, Henry BE. 1995. Photocatalytic inactivation of coliform bacteria and viruses in secondary wastewater effluent. Water Res. 29:95–100 [Google Scholar]
  29. 29.  Otaki M, Hirata T, Ohgaki S. 2000. Aqueous microorganisms inactivation by photocatalytic reaction. Water Sci. Technol. 42:103–8 [Google Scholar]
  30. 30.  Martín-Domínguez A, Alarcón-Herrera Ma T, Martín-Domínguez IR, González-Herrera A. 2005. Efficiency in the disinfection of water for human consumption in rural communities using solar radiation. Solar Energy 78:31–40 [Google Scholar]
  31. 31.  Liu S, Lim M, Amal R. 2014. TiO2-coated natural zeolite: rapid humic acid adsorption and effective photocatalytic regeneration. Chem. Eng. Sci. 105:46–52 [Google Scholar]
  32. 32.  Amin MT, Han MY. 2009. Roof-harvested rainwater for potable purposes: application of solar collector disinfection (SOCO-DIS). Water Res. 43:5225–35 [Google Scholar]
  33. 33. hubpages 2013. Drinking Jeera (Cumin)Water for Good Health Benefits http://lex123.hubpages.com/hub/Drinking-Jeera-Water-for-Good-Health [Google Scholar]
  34. 34. Remediespoint.com 2011. Camphor (Kapoor) http://www.remediespoint.com/herbs/camphor-kapoor.html [Google Scholar]
  35. 35.  Lea M. 2008. Biological sand filters: low-cost bioremediation technique for production of clean drinking water. Curr. Protoc. Microbiol. 11:G:1G.1.1–1G.1.28 [Google Scholar]
  36. 36.  Bielefeldt AR, Kowalski K, Summers RS. 2009. Bacterial treatment effectiveness of point-of-use ceramic water filters. Water Res. 43:3559–65 [Google Scholar]
  37. 37.  Bielefeldt AR, Kowalski K, Schilling C, Schreier S, Kohler A, Summers RS. 2010. Removal of virus to protozoan sized particles in point-of-use ceramic water filters. Water Res. 44:1482–88 [Google Scholar]
  38. 38.  Mwabi JK, Adeyemo FE, Mahlangu TO, Mamba BB, Brouckaert BM. et al. 2011. Household water treatment systems: a solution to the production of safe drinking water by the low-income communities of Southern Africa. Phys. Chem. Earth 36:1120–28 [Google Scholar]
  39. 39.  Simonis JJ, Basson AK. 2012. Manufacturing a low-cost ceramic water filter and filter system for the elimination of common pathogenic bacteria. Phys. Chem. Earth 50–52:269–76 [Google Scholar]
  40. 40.  Hedegaard MJ, Albrechtsen H. 2014. Microbial pesticide removal in rapid sand filters for drinking water treatment—potential and kinetics. Water Res 48:71–81 [Google Scholar]
  41. 41.  Satterfield Z. 2005. Filter backwashing. Tech. Brief. 5:31–4 [Google Scholar]
  42. 42.  Vieira AS, Weeber M, Ghisi E. 2013. Self-cleaning filtration: a novel concept for rainwater harvesting systems. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 78:67–73 [Google Scholar]
  43. 43.  Dhabadgaonkar SM. 1982. Low-cost household water treatment for developing countries. Water and Waste Engineering in Asia: Proceedings of the 8th WEDC Conference47–50 Loughborough, UK: Water Eng. Dev. Cent. [Google Scholar]
  44. 44.  Venkobachar C, Jain RK. 1983. Studies on development and performance of fixed bed disinfector. Water Supply 1:4193–204 [Google Scholar]
  45. 45.  Grabow WOK, Clay CG, Dhaliwal W, Vrey MA, Mýller EE. 1998–1999. Elimination of viruses, phages, bacteria and Crypfosporidium by a new generation Aquaguard point-of-use water treatment unit. Zentralblatt Hyg. Umweltmed. 202:399–410 [Google Scholar]
  46. 46.  Molloy SL, Ives R, Hoyt A, Taylor R, Rose JB. 2008. The use of copper and silver in carbon point-of-use filters for the suppression of Legionella throughput in domestic water systems. J. Appl. Microbiol. 104:998–1007 [Google Scholar]
  47. 47.  Oh HK, Takizawa S, Ohgaki S, Katayama H, Oguma K, Yu MJ. 2007. Removal of organics and viruses using hybrid ceramic MF system without draining PAC. Desalination 202:191–98 [Google Scholar]
  48. 48.  Varkey AJ, Dlamini MD. 2012. Point-of-use water purification using clay pot water filters and copper mesh. Water SA 38:721 [Google Scholar]
  49. 49.  Zhang H, Oyanedel-Craver V. 2013. Comparison of the bacterial removal performance of silver nanoparticles and a polymer based quaternary amine functionalized silsesquioxane coated point-of-use ceramic water filters. J. Hazard. Mater. 260:272–77 [Google Scholar]
  50. 50.  van der Laan H, van Halem D, Smeets PWMH, Soppe AIA, Kroesbergen J. et al. 2014. Bacteria and virus removal effectiveness of ceramic pot filters with different silver applications in a long term experiment. Water Res. 51:47–54 [Google Scholar]
  51. 51.  Fan X, Tao Y, Wang L, Zhang X, Lei Y. et al. 2014. Performance of an integrated process combining ozonation with ceramic membrane ultra-filtration for advanced treatment of drinking water. Desalination 335:47–54 [Google Scholar]
  52. 52.  Ariffin SN, Lim HN, Jumeri FA, Zobir M, Abdullah AH. et al. 2014. Modification of polypropylene filter with metaloxide and reduced graphene oxide for water treatment. Ceram. Int. 40:6927–36 [Google Scholar]
  53. 53.  Zhang H, Zhong Z, Li W, Xing W, Jin W. 2014. River water purification via a coagulation-porous ceramic membrane hybrid process. Chin. J. Chem. Eng. 22:1113–19 [Google Scholar]
  54. 54.  Khuntia S, Sahu AK, Beuria PC. 2002. Terafil water filter for sustainable drinking water programme. Dev. by Des. (dyd02), 2nd, Bangalore 2002. ThinkCycle.org [Google Scholar]
  55. 55.  Tiwari R, Herstatt C. 2012. Assessing India's lead market potential for cost-effective innovations. J. Indian Bus. Res. 4:297–115 [Google Scholar]
  56. 56.  Jahn SAA. 1988. Using Moringa seeds as coagulants in developing countries. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 80:643–50 [Google Scholar]
  57. 57.  Pritchard M, Mkandawire T, Edmondson A, O'Neill JG, Kululanga G. 2009. Potential of using plant extracts for purification of shallow well water in Malawi. Phys. Chem. Earth 34:799–805 [Google Scholar]
  58. 58.  Barth VH, Habs M, Klute R, Müller S, Tauscher B. 1982. Trinkwasseraufbereitung mit Samen von Moringa oleifera Lam. Chemiker-Zeitung 106:75–78 [Google Scholar]
  59. 59.  Jahn SAA. 1989. Moringa oleifera for food and water purification—selection of clones and growing of annual short stem. Entwickl. Ländl. Raum 23:422–25 [Google Scholar]
  60. 60.  Fuglie LJ. 2001. The Miracle Tree: The Multiple Attributes of Moringa. New York: Tech. Cent. Agric. Rural Coop., Wageningen/Church World Serv172 [Google Scholar]
  61. 61.  Olsen A. 1987. Low technology water purification by bentonite clay and Moringa oleifera seed flocculation as performed in Sudanese villages: effects on Schistosoma mansoni cercariae. Water Res. 21:5517–22 [Google Scholar]
  62. 62.  Madsen M, Schlundt J, Omer EFE. 1987. Effect of water coagulation by seeds of Moringa oleifera on bacterial concentrations. J. Trop. Med. Hygiene 90:101–9 [Google Scholar]
  63. 63.  Boateng PD. 2001. Comparative studies of the use of alum and Moringa oleifera in surface water treatment MSc Thesis, Dep. Civil Eng., Kwame Nkrumah Univ. Sci. Technol., Kumasi, Ghana [Google Scholar]
  64. 64.  Sengupta ME, Keraita B, Olsen A, Boateng OK, Thamsborg SM. et al. 2012. Use of Moringa oleifera seed extracts to reduce helminth egg numbers and turbidity in irrigation water. Water Res. 46:3646–56 [Google Scholar]
  65. 65.  Jahn SAA. 1986. Proper Use of African Natural Coagulants for Rural Water Supplies: Research in the Sudan and a Guide for New Projects Eschborn, Ger: Dtsch. Ges. Tech. Zs. [Google Scholar]
  66. 66.  Sutherland JP, Folkard GK, Grant WD. 1990. Natural coagulants for appropriate water treatment: a novel approach. Waterlines 8:430–32 [Google Scholar]
  67. 67.  Pritchard M, Craven T, Mkandawire T, Edmondson AS, O'Neill JG. 2010. A comparison between Moringa oleifera and chemical coagulants in the purification of drinking water—an alternative sustainable solution for developing countries. Phys. Chem. Earth 35:798–805 [Google Scholar]
  68. 68.  Ndabigengesere A, Narasiah KS. 1998. Quality of water treated by coagulation using Moringa oleifera seeds. Water Res. 32:3781–91 [Google Scholar]
  69. Adnan Al-Anizi A, Hellyer MT, Zhang D. 69.  2014. Toxicity assessment and modelling of Moringa oleifera seeds in water purification by whole cell bioreporter. Water Res. 56:77–87 [Google Scholar]
  70. 70.  Bhattacharjee T, Gidde MR, Bipinraj NK. 2013. Disinfection of drinking water in rural area using natural herbs. Int. J. Eng. Res. Dev. 5:107–10 [Google Scholar]
  71. 71. Dep. Sci. Technol., Water Technol. Initiat 2014. Purification of Drinking Water by Combined Treatment with Natural Coagulants and Solar Disinfection Mumbai: Dep. Sci. Technol. [Google Scholar]
  72. 72.  Sundaramurthi P, Dhandapani S, Ponnusamy S, Subbaiyan M. 2012. Effect of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) as a disinfectant for water treatment. Hitek J. Biol. Sci. Bioeng. 1:11–7 [Google Scholar]
  73. 73.  Sadul RR, Gidde MR, Bipinraj NK. 2009. Herbal disinfection of water Presented at Int. Conf. Emerg. Trends Waste Manag. Techn., MIT, Pune, India [Google Scholar]
  74. 74.  Somani SB, Ingole NW. 2012. Formulation of kinetic model to predict disinfection of water by using natural herbs. Int. J. Environ. Sci. 2:31344–54 [Google Scholar]
  75. 75.  Ibeto CN, Oparaku NF, Okpara CG. 2012. Comparative study of renewable energy based water disinfection methods for developing countries. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 3:4226–31 [Google Scholar]
  76. 76.  Ahiablame L, Engel B, Venort T. 2012. Improving water supply systems for domestic uses in urban Togo: the case of a suburb in Lomé. Water 4:123–34 [Google Scholar]
  77. 77.  Coelho B, Andrade-Campos A. 2014. Efficiency achievement in water supply systems—a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 30:59–84 [Google Scholar]
  78. 78.  Gebauer H, Saul CJ. 2014. Business model innovation in the water sector in developing countries. Sci. Total Environ. 488–89:512–20 [Google Scholar]
  79. 79.  Gadgil A. 2014. Innovating technologies for the poorest two billion Presented at ICT, Jan. 25, Mumbai, India [Google Scholar]
  80. 80.  Betancourt WQ, Rose JB. 2004. Drinking water treatment processes for removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Vet. Parasitol 126:219–34 [Google Scholar]
  81. 81.  Sazakli E, Alexopoulos A, Leotsinidis M. 2007. Rainwater harvesting, quality assessment and utilization in Kefalonia Island, Greece. Water Res 41:2039–47 [Google Scholar]
  82. 82.  Lee JY, Bak G, Han M. 2012. Quality of roof-harvested rainwater—comparison of different roofing materials. Environ. Pollut. 162:422–29 [Google Scholar]
  83. 83.  Mendez CB, Klenzendorf JB, Afshar BR, Simmons MT, Barrett ME. et al. 2011. The effect of roofing material on the quality of harvested rainwater. Water Res. 45:2049–59 [Google Scholar]
  84. 84.  Naddeo V, Scannapieco D, Belgiorno V. 2013. Enhanced drinking water supply through harvested rainwater treatment. J. Hydrol. 498:287–91 [Google Scholar]
  85. 85.  Nawaz M, Han MY, Kim T, Manzoor U, Amin MT. 2012. Silver disinfection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and E. coli in rooftop harvested rainwater for potable purposes. Sci. Total Environ. 431:20–25 [Google Scholar]
  86. 86.  Amin MT, Han MY. 2011. Improvement of solar based rainwater disinfection by using lemon and vinegar as catalysts. Desalination 276:1–3416–24 [Google Scholar]
  87. 87.  Boutilier MSH, Lee J, Chambers V, Venkatesh V, Karnik R. 2014. Water filtration using plant xylem. PLOS ONE 9:2e89934 [Google Scholar]
  88. 88. World Health Organ 2008. Drinking Water Guidelines and Standards Geneva, Switz: World Health Organ. [Google Scholar]
  89. 89.  D'souza S, Bootwala Y, Patil V. 2014. Wipro Earthian Internship Project Report 96 Bangalore, India: Biome Environ. Solut. Pvt. Ltd. [Google Scholar]
  90. 90.  Jyoti KK, Pandit AB. 2001. Water disinfection by acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation. Biochem. Eng. J. 7:201–12 [Google Scholar]
  91. 91.  Moholkar VS, Pandit AB. 1997. Bubble behavior in hydrodynamic cavitation: effect of turbulence. AIChE J. 43:1641–48 [Google Scholar]
  92. 92.  Save SS, Pandit AB, Joshi JB. 1994. Microbial cell disruption: role of cavitation. Chem. Eng. J. Biochem. Eng. J. 55:B67–72 [Google Scholar]
  93. 93. U.N 2012. World Economic Situation and Prospects Geneva, Switz: U.N http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wesp/wesp_archive/2012wesp.pdf [Google Scholar]
  94. 94.  Acra A, Raffoul Z, Karahagopian Y. 1984. Solar Disinfection of Drinking Water and Oral Rehydration Solutions: Guidelines for Household Application in Developing Countries New York: UNICEF [Google Scholar]
  95. 95.  Acra A, Jurdi M, Mu'allem H, Karahagopian Y, Raffoul Z. 1990. Water Disinfection by Solar Radiation Ottawa: Int. Dev. Res. Cent. [Google Scholar]
  96. 96.  Kehoe SC. 2001. Batch process solar disinfection of drinking water: process and pathogenicity PhD Thesis, R. Coll. Surg., Dublin, Irel. [Google Scholar]
  97. 97.  Lonnen J, Kilvington S, Kehoe SC, Al-Touati F, McGuigan KG. 2005. Solar and photocatalytic disinfection of protozoan, fungal and bacterial microbes in drinking water. Water Res. 39:877–83 [Google Scholar]
  98. 98.  Méndez-Hermida F, Ares-Mazás E, McGuigan KG, Boyle M, Sichel C, Fernández-Ibáñez P. 2007. Disinfection of drinking water contaminated with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under natural sunlight and using the photocatalyst TiO2. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 88:105–11 [Google Scholar]
  99. 99.  Gómez-Couso H, Fontán-Saínz M, Sichel C, Fernández-Ibáñez P, Ares-Mazás E. 2009. Efficacy of the solar water disinfection method in turbid waters experimentally contaminated with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under real field conditions. Trop. Med. Int. Health 14:6620–27 [Google Scholar]
  100. 100.  Heaselgrave W, Kilvington S. 2011. The efficacy of simulated solar disinfection (SODIS) against Ascaris, Giardia, Acanthamoeba, Naegleria, Entamoeba and Cryptosporidium. Acta Trop. 119:2–3138–43 [Google Scholar]
  101. 101.  Hindiyeh M, Ali A. 2010. Investigating the efficiency of solar energy system for drinking water disinfection. Desalination 259:208–15 [Google Scholar]
  102. 102.  Nalwanga R, Quilty B, Muyanja C, Fernandez-Ibañez P, McGuigan KG. 2014. Evaluation of solar disinfection of E. coli under Sub-Saharan field conditions using a 25L borosilicate glass batch reactor fitted with a compound parabolic collector. Solar Energy 100:195–202 [Google Scholar]
  103. 103.  Goh CW. 2005. Effect of room temperature on coagulation performance of Moringa oleifera seeds. BSc Diss., Fac. Eng., Univ. Putra Malaysia
  104. 104.  Doerr B. 2005. Moringa water treatment Echo Tech. Note, North Fort Myers, FL. http://www.echotech.org/mambo/images/DocMan/MorWaterTreat.pdf [Google Scholar]
  105. 105.  www.google.co.in Tata swach images https://www.google.co.in/search?q=tata+swach+images&biw=1280&bih=641&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=1cIWVLLoFMKUuASgm4CQBg&ved=0CCkQsAQ [Google Scholar]
  106. 106.  Mohan D, Pittman CU Jr. 2007. Arsenic removal from water/wastewater using adsorbents—a critical review. J. Hazard. Mater. 142:1–21–53 [Google Scholar]
  107. 107. INCID 2009. Groundwater arsenic contamination in India: vulnerability and scope for remedy. Proc. 5th Asian Reg. Conf. INCID, Dec. 9–11. New Dehli: INCID [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-061114-123432
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-061114-123432
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error