1932

Abstract

Active offender research relies on the collection of data from noninstitutionalized criminals and has made significant contributions to our understanding of the etiology of serious crime. This review covers its history as well as its methodological, scientific, and ethical pitfalls and advantages. Because study subjects are currently and freely engaging in crime at the time of data collection, their memories, attitudes, and feelings about their criminality and specific criminal events are rich, detailed, and accurate. Contemporary approaches to active offender research employ systematized formats for data collection and analysis that improve the validity of findings and help illuminate the foreground of crime. Although active offender research has traditionally relied on qualitative techniques, we outline the potential for it to make contributions via mixed methods, experiments, and emerging computational and technological approaches, such as virtual reality simulation studies and agent-based modeling.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092005
2020-01-13
2024-12-11
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/3/1/annurev-criminol-032317-092005.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092005&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Anderson E. 2000. Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City New York: WW Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Anwar S, Loughran TA. 2011. Testing a Bayesian learning theory of deterrence among serious juvenile offenders. Criminology 49:3667–98
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Baird A. 2018. Dancing with danger: ethnographic safety, male bravado and gang research in Colombia. Qual. Res. 18:3342–60
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Becker GS. 1968. Crime and punishment: an economic approach. The Economic Dimensions of Crime NG Fielding, A Clarke, R Witt 13–68 London: Palgrave Macmillan
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Becker HS. 1953. Becoming a marihuana user. Am. J. Sociol. 59:3235–42
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Becker HS. 1963. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance New York: Free Press
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Becker HS. 1966. Introduction. The Jack-Roller Clifford H Shaw v–xviii Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Bennett T, Wright R. 1984a. Constraints to burglary: the offender's perspective. Coping with Burglary R Clarke, T Hope 181–200 Dordrecht, Neth.: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Bennett T, Wright R. 1984b. Burglars on Burglary: Prevention and the Offender Aldershot, UK: Gower
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bennett T, Wright R. 1986a. Opioid users' attitudes towards and use of NHS clinics, general practitioners and private doctors. Br. J. Addict. 81:6757–63
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Bennett T, Wright R. 1986b. The drug-taking careers of opioid users. Howard J. Crim. Justice 25:11–12
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bennett T, Wright R. 1986c. The impact of prescribing on the crimes of opioid users. Br. J. Addict. 81:2265–73
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bernhardt M, Topalli V. 2016. The situational dynamics of street crime: property versus confrontational crime. The Wiley Handbook on the Psychology of Violence CA Cuevas, CM Rennison 179–94 New York: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Biderman AD, Reiss AJ Jr 1967. On exploring the “dark figure” of crime. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 374:11–15
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Birkbeck C, LaFree G. 1993. The situational analysis of crime and deviance. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 19:113–37
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Blatier C. 2000. Locus of control, causal attributions, and self-esteem: a comparison between prisoners. Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol. 44:197–110
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Bloor M, Fincham B, Sampson H 2010. Unprepared for the worst: risks of harm for qualitative researchers. Methodol. Innovat. Online 5:145–55
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Böttger A, Strobl R. 2003. Potentials and limits of qualitative methods for research on violence. International Handbook of Violence Research W Heitmeyer, J Hagan 1203–18 Dordrecht, Neth.: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bourgois P. 1995. In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio, Vol. 10 Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Braga AA. 2003a. Serious youth gun offenders and the epidemic of youth violence in Boston. J. Quant. Criminol. 19:133–54
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Brezina T, Tekin E, Topalli V 2009. “Might not be a tomorrow”: a multimethods approach to anticipated early death and youth crime. Criminology 47:41091–129
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Brezina T, Topalli V. 2012. Criminal self-efficacy: exploring the correlates and consequences of a “successful criminal” identity. Crim. Justice Behav. 39:81042–62
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Brookman F, Mullins C, Bennett T, Wright R 2007. Gender, motivation and the accomplishment of street robbery in the United Kingdom. Br. J. Criminol. 47:6861–84
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Brunson RK, Miller J. 2005. Young black men and urban policing in the United States. Br. J. Criminol. 46:4613–40
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Bueso-Izquierdo N, Verdejo-Román J, Contreras-Rodríguez O, Carmona-Perera M, Pérez-García M, Hidalgo-Ruzzante N 2016. Are batterers different from other criminals? An fMRI study. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 11:5852–62
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Bushway S, Weisburd D. 2006. Acknowledging the centrality of quantitative criminology in criminology and criminal justice. Criminologist 31:4 1 3–4
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Cesar GT, Decker SH. 2018. The promise and process of ethnography: what we have learned studying gang members and CPS kids. Doing Ethnography in Criminology: Discovery through Fieldwork SK Rice, MD Maltz 57–74 Cham, Switz.: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Chapple A. 1999. Reducing risk when interviewing in threatening areas: a personal view. Nurse Res 6:479–88
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Christianson SA 2007. Offenders’ Memories of Violent Crimes, Vol. 32 New York: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Copes H, Hochstetler A, Williams JP 2008. “We weren't like no regular dope fiends”: negotiating hustler and crackhead identities. Soc. Probl. 55:254–70
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Copes H, Jacques S, Hochstetler A, Dickinson T 2015. Interviewing offenders: the active versus inmate debate. The Routledge Handbook of Qualitative Criminology H Copes, JM Miller 157–72 New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Cozens P, McLeod S, Matthews J 2018. Visual representations in crime prevention: exploring the use of building information modelling (BIM) to investigate burglary and crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). Crime Prev. Community Saf. 20:263–83
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Cromwell PF, Olson JN, D'Aunn WA 1991. Breaking and Entering: An Ethnographic Analysis of Burglary, Vol. 8 Newbury Park, CA: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  34. De Andrade LL. 2000. Negotiating from the inside: constructing racial and ethnic identity in qualitative research. J. Contemp. Ethnogr. 29:3268–90
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Decker SH, Lauritsen JL. 1996. Breaking the bonds of membership: leaving the gang. Gangs in America CR Huff 103–22 Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Decker SH, Wright R, Logie R 1993. Perceptual deterrence among active residential burglars: a research note. Criminology 31:1135–47
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Decker SH, Van Winkle B 1996. Life in the Gang: Family, Friends, and Violence Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Detardo-Bora KA. 2004. Action research in a world of positivist-oriented review boards. Action Res 2:3237–53
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Dickinson T. 2015. Exploring the drugs/violence nexus among active offenders: contributions from the St. Louis School. Crim. Justice Rev. 40:167–86
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Dickinson T, Wright R. 2015. Gossip, decision-making and deterrence in drug markets. Br. J. Criminol. 55:61263–81
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Dickinson T, Wright R. 2017. The funny side of drug dealing: risk, humor, and narrative identity. Criminology 55:3691–720
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Fagan J, Piquero AR. 2007. Rational choice and developmental influences on recidivism among adolescent felony offenders. J. Empir. Legal Stud. 4:4715–48
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Farmer M, Beech AR, Ward T 2012. Assessing desistance in child molesters: a qualitative analysis. J. Interpers. Violence 27:5930–50
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Feeney F. 1986. Robbers as decision makers. The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending DB Cornish, RV Clarke 53–72 New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publ
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Field C, Archer V, Bowman J 2019. Twenty years in prison: reflections on conducting research in correctional environments. Prison J 99:2135–49
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Friedenberg J, Silverman G. 2006. Mind as a black box: the behaviorist approach. Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind85–88 Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Gibson D, Lindegaard MR. 2007. South African boys with plans for the future: why a focus on dominant discourses tells us only a part of the story. From Boys to Men: Social Constructions of Masculinity in Contemporary Society T Shefer, K Ratele, A Strebel, N Shabalala, R Buikema 128–44 Cape Town, S. Afr.: Juta Acad
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Gilbert N, Troitzsch K. 2005. Simulation for the Social Scientist London: Open Univ. Press, 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Goffman A. 2015. On the Run: Fugitive Life in an American City London: Picador
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Gottfredson MR, Hirschi T. 1990. A General Theory of Crime Stanford, CA: Stanf. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Groff ER, Johnson SD, Thornton A 2018. State of the art in agent-based modeling of urban crime: an overview. J. Quant. Criminol. 35:1155–93
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Groves WB, Lynch MJ. 1990. Reconciling structural and subjective approaches to the study of crime. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 27:4348–75
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hindelang MJ. 1970. The commitment of delinquents to their misdeeds: Do delinquents drift?. Soc. Probl. 17:4502–9
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Hirschi T. 1986. On the capability of rational choice and social control theories of crime. The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending D Cornish, R Clarke 105–18 Dordrecht, Neth.: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Hobbs D, Hadfield P, Lister S, Winlow S 2003. Bouncers: Violence and Governance in the Night-Time Economy Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Horney J, Marshall IH. 1993. Crime commission rates among incarcerated felons in Nebraska, 1986–1990 Rep. 9916, ICPSR Ann Arbor, MI: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/studies/9916
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Howell N. 1990. Surviving Fieldwork: A Report of the Advisory Panel on Health and Safety in Fieldwork, American Anthropological Association, Vol. 26 Arlington, VA: Am. Anthropol. Assoc
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Hyman IE Jr., Loftus EF. 1998. Errors in autobiographical memory. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 18:8933–47
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Ice GH, Dufour DL, Stevens NJ 2015. Disasters in Field Research: Preparing For and Coping With Unexpected Events Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Irwin J. 1980. Prisons in Turmoil Boston: Little, Brown
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Jacobs BA. 1999. Dealing Crack: The Social World of Streetcorner Selling Lebanon, NH: UPNE
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Jacobs BA. 2000. Robbing Drug Dealers: Violence Beyond the Law New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Jacobs BA. 2010. Deterrence and deterrability. Criminology 48:2417–41
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Jacobs BA. 2013. The manipulation of fear in carjacking. J. Contemp. Ethnogr. 42:5523–44
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Jacobs BA, Cherbonneau M. 2016. Managing victim confrontation: auto theft and informal sanction threats. Justice Q 33:121–44
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Jacobs BA, Cherbonneau M. 2018. Perceived sanction threats and projective risk sensitivity: auto theft, carjacking, and the channeling effect. Justice Q 35:2191–222
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Jacobs BA, Cherbonneau M. 2019. Carjacking and the management of natural surveillance. J. Crim. Justice 61:40–47
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Jacobs BA, Miller J. 1998. Crack dealing, gender, and arrest avoidance. Soc. Probl. 45:4550–69
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Jacobs BA, Topalli V, Wright R 2000. Managing retaliation: drug robbery and informal sanction threats. Criminology 38:1171–98
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Jacobs BA, Topalli V, Wright R 2003. Carjacking, streetlife and offender motivation. Br. J. Criminol. 43:4673–88
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Jacobs BA, Wright R. 1999. Stick-up, street culture, and offender motivation. Criminology 37:1149–74
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Jacobs BA, Wright R. 2006. Street Justice: Retaliation in the Criminal Underworld Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Jacobs BA, Wright R. 2008. Moralistic drug robbery. Crime Delinquency 54:511–31
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Jacobs JB. 1974. Street gangs behind bars. Soc. Probl. 21:3395–409
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Jacques S. 2010. The necessary conditions for retaliation: toward a theory of non-violent and violent forms in drug markets. Justice Q 27:2186–205
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Jacques S. 2019a. Grey Area: Regulating Amsterdam's Coffeeshops London: UCL Press
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Jacques S. 2019b. Which source possesses the best data on the empirical aspects of criminal events? A theory of opportunity and necessary conditions. Deviant Behav 40:12154352
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Jacques S, Lasky N, Fisher B 2015. Seeing the offenders’ perspective through the eye-tracking device: methodological insights from a study of shoplifters. J. Contemp. Crim. Justice 31:449–67
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Jacques S, Reynald D. 2012. The offenders’ perspective on prevention: guarding against victimization and law enforcement. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 49:269–94
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Jacques S, Wright R. 2008. The relevance of peace to studies of drug market violence. Criminology 46:1221–54
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Jacques S, Wright R. 2010. Dangerous intimacy: toward a theory of violent victimization in active offender research. J. Crim. Justice Educ. 21:4503–25
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Jacques S, Wright R. 2011. Informal control and illicit drug trade. Criminology 49:3729–65
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Jacques S, Wright R. 2015. Code of the Suburb: Inside the World of Young Middle-Class Drug Dealers Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Jamieson J. 2002. Negotiating danger in fieldwork on crime: a researcher's tale. Danger in the Field: Risk and Ethics in Social Research G Lee-Treweek 71–81 New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Johnson SD, Groff ER. 2014. Strengthening theoretical testing in criminology using agent-based modeling. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 51:4509–25
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Katz J. 1988. Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions in Doing Evil New York: Basic Books
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Katz J. 2002. Start here: social ontology and research strategy. Theor. Criminol. 6:3255–78
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Katz J. 2019. Hot potato criminology: ethnographers and the shame of poor people's crimes. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 2:21–52
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Kennedy DM. 1997. Pulling levers: chronic offenders, high-crime settings, and a theory of prevention. Valparaiso Univ. Law Rev. 31:449–84
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Kovats-Bernat JC. 2002. Negotiating dangerous fields: pragmatic strategies for fieldwork amid violence and terror. Am. Anthropol. 104:1208–22
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Laub JH, Sampson RJ. 2006. Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives: Delinquent Boys to Age 70 Cambridge: Harv. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Lee RM. 1995. Dangerous Fieldwork, Vol. 34 Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Lee YJ, Roth WM. 2004. Making a scientist: discursive “doing” of identity and self-presentation during research interviews. Forum Qual. Soc. Res. 5:112
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Lee-Treweek G, Linkogle S. 2002. Putting danger in the frame. Danger in the Field: Risk and Ethics in Social Research G Lee-Treweek 8–25 London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Levine KL, Topalli V. 2019. Process as intergenerational punishment. The Legal Process and the Promise of Justice: Studies Inspired by the Work of Malcolm Feeley R Greenspan, H Aviram, J Simon 55–71 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Liebow E. 1967. Tally's Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Light R, Nee C, Ingham H 1993. Car Theft: The Offender's Perspective Richmond, UK: HM Station. Office
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Lindegaard MR, Bernasco W, Jacques S 2015. Consequences of expected and observed victim resistance for offender violence during robbery events. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 52:32–61
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Lindegaard MR, Henriksen A. 2009. Sexually active virgins: negotiating adolescent femininity, colour and safety in Cape Town. Transgressive Sex: Subversion and Control in Erotic Encounters H Donnan, F Magowan 25–45 New York: Berghahn
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Lindegaard MR, Miller J, Reynald DM 2013. Transitory mobility, cultural heterogeneity, and victimization risk among young men of color: insights from an ethnographic study in Cape Town, South Africa. Criminology 51:4967–1008
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Lindesmith AR. 1947. Opiate Addiction New York: APA
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Loftus EF. 1997. Creating false memories. Sci. Am. 277:370–75
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Loftus EF, Fathi DC. 1985. Retrieving multiple autobiographical memories. Soc. Cogn. 3:3280–95
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Loftus EF, Nucci M, Hoffman H 1998. Manufacturing memory. Am. J. Forensic Psychol. 16:63–75
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Lombroso C. 1885. [ 2006.]. Criminal Man Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Loughran TA, Paternoster R, Piquero AR, Pogarsky G 2011. On ambiguity in perceptions of risk: implications for criminal decision making and deterrence. Criminology 49:1029–61
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Loughran TA, Paternoster R, Weiss D 2012. Hyperbolic time discounting, offender time preferences and deterrence. J. Quant. Criminol. 28:4607–28
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Macal CM. 2016. Everything you need to know about agent-based modelling and simulation. J. Simul. 10:2144–56
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Maher L. 1997. Sexed Work: Gender, Race, and Resistance in a Brooklyn Drug Market Oxford: Oxford: Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Maher L, Curtis R. 1992. Women on the edge of crime: crack cocaine and the changing contexts of street-level sex work in New York City. Crime Law Soc. Change 18:3221–58
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Maher L, Daly K. 1996. Women in the street-level drug economy: continuity or change?. Criminology 34:4465–92
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Malleson N. 2012. Using agent-based models to simulate crime. Agent-Based Models of Geographical Systems A Heppenstall, A Crooks, LM See, M Batty 411–34 Dordrecht, Neth.: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Malleson N, Heppenstall A, See L 2010. Crime reduction through simulation: an agent-based model of burglary. Comput. Environ. Urban Syst. 34:3236–50
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Malleson N, See L, Evans A, Heppenstall A 2012. Implementing comprehensive offender behaviour in a realistic agent-based model of burglary. Simulation 88:150–71
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Maruna S. 2001. Making Good Washington, DC: APA
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Maruna S. 2010. Mixed method research in criminology: Why not go both ways?. Handbook of Quantitative Criminology AR Piquero, D Weisburd 123–40 Dordrecht, Neth.: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Maruna S, Lebel TP, Mitchell N, Naples M 2004. Pygmalion in the reintegration process: desistance from crime through the looking glass. Psychol. Crime Law 10:3271–81
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Maruna S, Matravers A. 2007. N = 1: criminology and the person. Theor. Criminol. 11:4427–42
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Maruna S, Wilson L, Curran K 2006. Why God is often found behind bars: prison conversions and the crisis of self-narrative. Res. Hum. Dev. 3:2–3161–84
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Mascini P, Houtman D. 2006. Rehabilitation and repression: reassessing their ideological embeddedness. Br. J. Criminol. 46:5822–36
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Matsueda RL. 2013. The macro–micro problem in criminology revisited. Criminologist 38: 1 3–7
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Mayorga-Gallo S, Hordge-Freeman E. 2017. Between marginality and privilege: gaining access and navigating the field in multiethnic settings. Qual. Res. 17:4377–94
    [Google Scholar]
  123. McKendy L, Ricciardelli R. 2019. Prison culture. Handbook of Social Control M Deflem, CF Wellford159–305 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Meenaghan A, Nee C, Van Gelder JL, Otte M, Vernham Z 2018. Getting closer to the action: using the virtual enactment method to understand burglary. Deviant Behav 39:4437–60
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Miller J. 1998. Up it up: gender and the accomplishment of street robbery. Criminology 36:137–66
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Miller J. 2001. One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs, and Gender Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Miller J. 2005. The status of qualitative research in criminology. Workshop on Interdisciplinary Standards for Systemic Qualitative Research M Lamont, P White 69–75 Arlington, VA: Natl. Sci. Found
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Miller J. 2008. Getting Played: African American Girls, Urban Inequality, and Gendered Violence New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Mullins C. 2013. Holding Your Square London: Willan Publ
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Mullins CW, Cherbonneau MG. 2011. Establishing connections: gender, motor vehicle theft, and disposal networks. Justice Q 28:2278–302
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Mullins CW, Wright R, Jacobs BA 2004. Gender, streetlife, and criminal retaliation. Criminology 42:4911–40
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Myers RR. 2015. Barriers, blinders, and unbeknownst experts: overcoming access barriers to conduct qualitative studies of juvenile justice. Prison J 95:166–83
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Nee C, Taylor M. 2000. Examining burglars’ target selection: interview, experiment or ethnomethodology?. Psychol. Crime Law 6:145–59
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Nee C, van Gelder JL, Otte M, Vernham Z, Meenaghan A 2019. Learning on the job: studying expertise in residential burglars using virtual environments. Criminology 57:3481511
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Paternoster R, Bushway S. 2011. Studying desistance from crime: where quantitative meets qualitative. What Is Criminology? M Bosworth, C Hoyle 183–97 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Pickett JT. 2018. Using behavioral economics to advance deterrence research and improve crime policy: some illustrative experiments. Crime Delinquency 64:121636–59
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Pogarsky G, Roche SP, Pickett JT 2018. Criminology & offender decision making: contributions from behavioral economics. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1:379–400
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Polsky N. 1969. Hustlers, Beats, and Others New York: Anchor Books
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Porter S, Woodworth M, Doucette NL 2007. Memory for murder: the qualities and credibility of homicide narratives by perpetrators. See Christianson 2007 115–34
  140. Presser L. 2004. Violent offenders, moral selves: constructing identities and accounts in the research interview. Soc. Probl. 51:182–101
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Rabionet SE. 2011. How I learned to design and conduct semi-structured interviews: an ongoing and continuous journey. Qual. Rep. 16:2563–66
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Read JD, Yuille JC, Tollestrup P 1992. Recollections of a robbery: effects of arousal and alcohol upon recall and person identification. Law Hum. Behav. 16:4425–46
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Rios VM. 2011. Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Rosenfeld R, Jacobs BA, Wright R. 2003. Snitching and the code of the street. Br. J. Criminol. 43:2291–309
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Sampson RJ, Laub JH. 1995. Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life Cambridge, MA: Harv. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Sandberg S. 2008a. Street capital: ethnicity and violence on the streets of Oslo. Theor. Criminol. 12:2153–71
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Sandberg S. 2008b. Black drug dealers in a white welfare state: cannabis dealing and street capital in Norway. Br. J. Criminol. 48:5604–19
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Sandberg S. 2012. The importance of culture for cannabis markets: towards an economic sociology of illegal drug markets. Br. J. Criminol. 52:61133–51
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Sandberg S, Copes H. 2013. Speaking with ethnographers: the challenges of researching drug dealers and offenders. J. Drug Issues 43:2176–97
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Sandberg S, Pedersen W. 2011. Street Capital: Black Cannabis Dealers in a White Welfare State Bristol, UK: Policy Press
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Sanders C. 2010. Ethnography as dangerous, sad, and dirty work. New Frontiers in Ethnography S Hillyard 101–24 Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publ
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Schacter DL, Norman KA, Koutstaal W 1998. The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 49:289–318
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Sharp G, Kremer E. 2006. The safety dance: confronting harassment, intimidation, and violence in the field. Sociol. Methodol. 36:1317–27
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Shaw CR. 1930. The Jack-Roller: A Delinquent Boy's Own Story Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Shaw CR, McKay HD. 1942. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Shover N. 1996. Great Pretenders: Pursuits and Careers of Persistent Thieves New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Smith MJ, Tilley N 2013. Crime Science New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Snodgrass J. 1982. The Jack-Roller at Seventy: A Fifty-Year Follow-Up Lanham, MD: Lexington Books
    [Google Scholar]
  159. Steffensmeier DJ, Ulmer JT. 2005. Confessions of a Dying Thief New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Sutherland EH. 1937. The Professional Thief Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Sutherland EH. 1956. Development of a theory. The Sutherland Papers A Cohen, A Lindesmith, K Schuessler. Bloomington Indiana Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  162. Sutherland E, Cressey D. 1970. Criminology Philadelphia: Lippincott, 8th ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  163. Sykes GM. 1958. The pains of imprisonment. The Society of Captives: A Study of a Maximum Security Prison63–78 Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  164. Sykes GM, Matza D. 1957. Techniques of neutralization: a theory of delinquency. Am. Sociol. Rev. 22:6664–70
    [Google Scholar]
  165. Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California 17 Cal. 3d 425, 551 P.2d 334, 131 Cal. Rptr. 14 1976.
  166. Tekin E, Topalli V, McClellan C, Wright R 2014. Liquidating crime with illiquidity: how switching from cash to credit can stop street crime. CESifo DICE Rep 12:245–50
    [Google Scholar]
  167. Tewksbury R, Dabney DA, Copes H 2010. The prominence of qualitative research in criminology and criminal justice scholarship. J. Crim. Justice Educ. 21:4391–411
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Thomas KJ, Hamilton BC, Loughran TA 2018. Testing the transitivity of reported risk perceptions: evidence of coherent arbitrariness. Criminology 56:159–86
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Thomas WI, Znaniecki F. 1918. The Polish Peasant in Europe and America: Monograph of an Immigrant Group, Vols. 1–4 Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  170. Toet A, van Schaik MG 2012. Effects of signals of disorder on fear of crime in real and virtual environments. J. Environ. Psychol. 32:3260–76
    [Google Scholar]
  171. Topalli V. 2004. Criminal expertise and offender decision-making: an experimental analysis of how offenders and non-offenders differentially perceive social stimuli. Br. J. Criminol. 45:3269–95
    [Google Scholar]
  172. Topalli V. 2005. When being good is bad: an expansion of neutralization theory. Criminology 43:3797–836
    [Google Scholar]
  173. Topalli V. 2006. The seductive nature of autotelic crime: how neutralization theory serves as a boundary condition for understanding hardcore street offending. Sociol. Inq. 76:4475–501
    [Google Scholar]
  174. Topalli V, Brezina T, Bernhardt M 2013. With God on my side: the paradoxical relationship between religious belief and criminality among hardcore street offenders. Theor. Criminol. 17:149–69
    [Google Scholar]
  175. Topalli V, Jacques S, Wright R 2015. “It takes skills to take a car”: perceptual and procedural expertise in carjacking. Aggress. Violent Behav. 20:19–25
    [Google Scholar]
  176. Topalli V, Wright R. 2004. Dubs and dees, beats and rims: carjackers and urban violence. Crime Types: A Text Reader D Dabney 149–69 Philadelphia: Aspen Publ
    [Google Scholar]
  177. Topalli V, Wright R. 2013. Affect and the dynamic foreground of predatory street crime: desperation, anger and fear. Affect and Cognition in Criminal Decision Making DM Reynald, JL van Gelder, H Elffers, DS Nagin 60–75 New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  178. Topalli V, Wright R, Fornango R 2002. Drug dealers, robbery and retaliation: vulnerability, deterrence and the contagion of violence. Br. J. Criminol. 42:2337–51
    [Google Scholar]
  179. Troitzsch KG. 2017. Can agent-based simulation models replicate organised crime?. Trends Organized Crime 20:1–2100–19
    [Google Scholar]
  180. Van Gelder JL, Luciano EC, Weulen Kranenbarg M, Hershfield HE 2015. Friends with my future self: longitudinal vividness intervention reduces delinquency. Criminology 53:2158–79
    [Google Scholar]
  181. Van Gelder JL, Nee C, Otte M, Demetriou A, van Sintemaartensdijk I, van Prooijen JW 2017. Virtual burglary: exploring the potential of virtual reality to study burglary in action. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 54:129–62
    [Google Scholar]
  182. Vasoli R, Terzola DA. 1974. Sutherland's professional thief. Criminology 12:131–54
    [Google Scholar]
  183. Venkatesh SA. 2008. Off the Books Cambridge, MA: Harv. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  184. Vermeulen HF. 2015. Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment Lincoln, NE: Univ. Neb. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  185. Walsh D. 1986. Heavy Business: Commercial Burglary and Robbery Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  186. Weisburd D, Morris N, Groff ER 2009. Hot spots of juvenile crime: a longitudinal study of street segments in Seattle, Washington. J. Quant. Criminol. 25:443–67
    [Google Scholar]
  187. Whyte WF. 1943. Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  188. Williams T, Dunlap E, Johnson BD, Hamid A 1992. Personal safety in dangerous places. J. Contemp. Ethnogr. 21:3343–74
    [Google Scholar]
  189. Woodward VH, Webb ME, Griffin OH III, Copes H 2016. The current state of criminological research in the United States: an examination of research methodologies in criminology and criminal justice journals. J. Crim. Justice Educ. 27:3340–61
    [Google Scholar]
  190. Wortley R, Townsley M 2016. Environmental Criminology and Crime AnalysisAbingdon, UK Taylor & Francis
    [Google Scholar]
  191. Wright R, Decker SH. 1994. Burglars on the Job: Streetlife and Residential Break-ins Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  192. Wright R, Decker SH. 1997. Armed Robbers in Action: Stick Ups and Street Culture Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  193. Wright R, Jacques S, Stein M 2015. Where are we? Why are we here? Where are we going? How do we get there? The future of qualitative research in American criminology. Qual. Res. Criminol. Adv. Criminol. Theory 20:339–50
    [Google Scholar]
  194. Wright R, Logie RH, Decker SH 1995. Criminal expertise and offender decision making: an experimental study of the target selection process in residential burglary. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 32:139–53
    [Google Scholar]
  195. Wright R, Tekin E, Topalli V, McClellan C, Dickinson T, Rosenfeld R 2017. Less cash, less crime: evidence from the electronic benefit transfer program. J. Law Econ. 60:2361–83
    [Google Scholar]
  196. Wright R, Topalli V. 2013. Choosing street crime. The Oxford Handbook of Criminological Theory FT Cullen, P Wilcox 461–74 Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092005
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error