1932

Abstract

Uncertainty about sea-level rise is dominated by uncertainty about iceberg calving, mass loss from glaciers or ice sheets by fracturing. Review of the rapidly growing calving literature leads to a few overarching hypotheses. Almost all calving occurs near or just downglacier of a location where ice flows into an environment more favorable for calving, so the calving rate is controlled primarily by flow to the ice margin rather than by fracturing. Calving can be classified into five regimes, which tend to be persistent, predictable, and insensitive to small perturbations in flow velocity, ice characteristics, or environmental forcing; these regimes can be studied instrumentally. Sufficiently large perturbations may cause sometimes-rapid transitions between regimes or between calving and noncalving behavior, during which fracturing may control the rate of calving. Regime transitions underlie the largest uncertainties in sea-level rise projections, but with few, important exceptions, have not been observed instrumentally. This is especially true of the most important regime transitions for sea-level rise. Process-based models informed by studies of ongoing calving, and assimilation of deep-time paleoclimatic data, may help reduce uncertainties about regime transitions. Failure to include calving accurately in predictive models could lead to large underestimates of warming-induced sea-level rise.

  • ▪  Iceberg calving, the breakage of ice from glaciers and ice sheets, affects sea level and many other environmental issues.
  • ▪  Modern rates of iceberg calving usually are controlled by the rate of ice flow past restraining points, not by the brittle calving processes.
  • ▪  Calving can be classified into five regimes, which are persistent, predictable, and insensitive to small perturbations.
  • ▪  Transitions between calving regimes are especially important, and with warming might cause faster sea-level rise than generally projected.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-110916
2023-05-31
2024-10-03
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/earth/51/1/annurev-earth-032320-110916.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-110916&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Alley KE, Scambos TA, Alley RB, Holschuh ND. 2019.. Troughs developed in ice-stream shear margins precondition ice shelves for ocean-driven breakup. . Sci. Adv. 5::eaax2215
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Alley RB, Anandakrishnan S, Christianson K, Horgan HJ, Muto A, et al. 2015.. Oceanic forcing of ice-sheet retreat: West Antarctica and more. . Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 43::20731
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Alley RB, Anandakrishnan S, Dupont TK, Parizek BR, Pollard D. 2007.. Effect of sedimentation on ice-sheet grounding-line stability. . Science 315::183841
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Alley RB, Andrews JT, Barber DC, Clark PU. 2005a.. Comment on “Catastrophic ice shelf breakup as the source of Heinrich event icebergs” by CL Hulbe et al. . Paleoceanography 20::PA1009
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Alley RB, Cuffey KM, Evenson EB, Strasser JC, Lawson DE, Larson GJ. 1997.. How glaciers entrain and transport basal sediment: physical constraints. . Quat. Sci. Rev. 16::101738
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Alley RB, Dupont TK, Parizek BR, Anandakrishnan S. 2005b.. Access of surface meltwater to beds of sub-freezing glaciers: preliminary insights. . Ann. Glaciol. 40::814
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Alley RB, Horgan HJ, Joughin I, Cuffey KM, Dupont TK, et al. 2008.. A simple law for ice-shelf calving. . Science 322::1344
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Amundson JM, Fahnestock M, Truffer M, Brown J, Lüthi MP, Motyka RJ. 2010.. Ice mélange dynamics and implications for terminus stability, Jakobshavn Isbræ, Greenland J. . Geophys. Res. 115:(F1):F01005
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Arthur JF, Stokes CR, Jamieson SSR, Miles BWJ, Carr JR, Leeson AA. 2021.. The triggers of the disaggregation of Voyeykov Ice Shelf 2007, Wilkes Land, East Antarctica, and its subsequent evolution. . J. Glaciol. 67::93551
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Atkinson BK. 1984.. Subcritical crack growth in geological materials. . J. Geophys. Res. 89:(B6):4077114
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Banwell AF, MacAyeal DR, Sergienko OV. 2013.. Breakup of the Larsen B Ice Shelf triggered by chain reaction drainage of supraglacial lakes. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 40::587276
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bassis JN, Berg B, Crawford AJ, Benn DI. 2021.. Transition to marine ice cliff instability controlled by ice thickness gradients and velocity. . Science 372::134244
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bassis JH, Fricker H, Coleman R, Minster J. 2008.. An investigation into the forces that drive ice-shelf rift propagation on the Amery Ice Shelf, East Antarctica. . J. Glaciol. 54::1727
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Bassis JN, Walker CC. 2012.. Upper and lower limits on the stability of calving glaciers from the yield strength envelope of ice. . Proc. R. Soc. A 468::91331
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Baumhoer CA, Dietz AJ, Kneisel C, Paeth H, Kuenzer C. 2021.. Environmental drivers of circum-Antarctic glacier and ice shelf front retreat over the last two decades. . Cryosphere 15::235781
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Bažant Z. 1999.. Size effect on structural strength: a review. . Arch. Appl. Mech. 69::70325
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Bell RE, Chu W, Kingslake J, Das I, Tedesco M, et al. 2017.. Antarctic ice shelf potentially stabilized by export of meltwater in surface river. . Nature 544::34448
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Benn DI, Åström JA. 2018.. Calving glaciers and ice shelves. . Adv. Phys. X 3::104876
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Benn DI, Åström JAN, Zwinger T, Todd J, Nick FM, et al. 2017.. Melt-under-cutting and buoyancy-driven calving from tidewater glaciers: new insights from discrete element and continuum model simulations. . J. Glaciol. 63::691702
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Benn DI, Warren C, Mottram R. 2007.. Calving processes and the dynamics of calving glaciers. . Earth-Sci. Rev. 82::14379
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Bentley C, Ostenso N. 1961.. Glacial and subglacial topography of West Antarctica. . J. Glaciol. 3::882911
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Berg B, Bassis J. 2022.. Crevasse advection increases glacier calving. . J. Glaciol. 68::97786
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Bigg G, Billings S. 2014.. The iceberg risk in the Titanic year of 1912: Was it exceptional?. Significance 11::610
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Bindschadler R, Koci B, Shabtaie S, Roberts E. 1989.. Evolution of Crary Ice Rise, Antarctica. . Ann. Glaciol. 12::199200
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Briner JP, Alley RB, Bender ML, Csatho B, Poinar K, Schaefer JM. 2017.. How stable is the Greenland Ice Sheet? White Pap., Natl. Sci. Found., Buffalo, NY:. http://www.glyfac.buffalo.edu/Faculty/briner/greenlandworkshop/NSF_greenland_stability_whitepaper.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Brinkerhoff D, Truffer M, Aschwanden A. 2017.. Sediment transport drives tidewater glacier periodicity. . Nat. Commun. 8::90
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Buchanan MK, Kopp RE, Oppenheimer M, Tebaldi C. 2016.. Allowances for evolving coastal flood risk under uncertain local sea-level rise. . Clim. Change 137::34762
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Bunce C, Nienow P, Sole A, Cowton T, Davison B. 2021.. Influence of glacier runoff and near-terminus subglacial hydrology on frontal ablation at a large Greenlandic tidewater glacier. . J. Glaciol. 67::34352
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Burton JC, Amundson JM, Abbot DS, Boghosian A, Cathles LM, et al. 2012.. Laboratory investigations of iceberg capsize dynamics, energy dissipation and tsunamigenesis. , J. Geophys. Res. 117:(F1):F01007
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Cheever H. 1851.. The Whale and His Captors, or, The Whaleman's Adventures and the Whale's Biography. London:: T. Nelson and Sons
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Christie FD, Benham TJ, Batchelor CL, Rack W, Montelli A, Dowdeswell JA. 2022.. Antarctic ice-shelf advance driven by anomalous atmospheric and sea-ice circulation. . Nat. Geosci. 15::35662
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Clerc F, Minchew BM, Behn MD. 2019.. Marine ice cliff instability mitigated by slow removal of ice shelves. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 46::1210816
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Cook SJ, Christoffersen P, Truffer M, Chudley TR. 2021.. Calving of a large Greenlandic tidewater glacier has complex links to meltwater plumes and mélange. . J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 126::e2020JF006051
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Crawford AJ, Benn DI, Todd J, Åström A, Bassis JN, Zwinger T. 2021.. Marine ice-cliff instability modeling shows mixed-mode ice-cliff failure and yields calving rate parameterization. . Nat. Commun. 12::2701
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Cuffey KM, Conway H, Gades AM, Hallet B, Lorrain R, et al. 2000.. Entrainment at cold glacier beds. . Geology 28::35154
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Cuffey KM, Paterson WSB. 2010.. The Physics of Glaciers. Burlington, MA:: Elsevier, 4th ed.
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Cunningham WL, Leventer A, Andrews JT, Jennings AE, Licht KJ. 1999.. Late Pleistocene-Holocene marine conditions in the Ross Sea, Antarctica: evidence from the diatom record. . Holocene 9::12939
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Das SB, Alley RB. 2008.. Rise in frequency of surface melting at Siple Dome through the Holocene: evidence for increasing marine influence on the climate of West Antarctica. . J. Geophys. Res. 113:(D2):D02112
    [Google Scholar]
  39. DeConto RM, Pollard D. 2016.. Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea-level rise. . Nature 531::59197
    [Google Scholar]
  40. DeConto RM, Pollard D, Alley RB, Velicogna I, Gasson E. et al. 2021.. The Paris Climate Agreement and future sea-level rise from Antarctica. . Nature 593::8389
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Doake CSM, Corr HFJ, Rott H, Skvarca P, Young NW. 1998.. Breakup and conditions for stability of the northern Larsen Ice Shelf, Antarctica. . Nature 391::77880
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Dowdeswell JA, Jeffries MO. 2017.. Arctic ice shelves: an introduction. . In Arctic Ice Shelves and Ice Islands, ed. L Copland, D Mueller , pp. 321 Dordrecht, Neth:.: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Duprat LP, Bigg GR, Wilton DJ. 2016.. Enhanced Southern Ocean marine productivity due to fertilization by giant icebergs. . Nat. Geosci. 9::21921
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Edwards TL, Nowicki S, Marzeion B, Hock R, Golzier H, et al. 2021.. Projected land ice contributions to twenty-first-century sea level rise. . Nature 593::7482
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Ekström G, Nettles M, Tsai VC. 2006.. Seasonality and increasing frequency of Greenland glacial earthquakes. . Science 311::175658
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Faillettaz J, Funk M, Vincent C. 2015.. Avalanching glacier instabilities: review on processes and early warning perspectives. . Rev. Geophys. 53::20324
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Faillettaz J, Sornette D, Funk M. 2011.. Numerical modeling of a gravity-driven instability of a cold hanging glacier: reanalysis of the 1895 break-off of Altelsgletscher, Switzerland. . J. Glaciol. 57::81731
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Field WO. 1947.. Glacier recession in Muir Inlet, Glacier Bay, Alaska. . Geogr. Rev. 37::36999
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Fox-Kemper B, Hewitt HT, Xiao C, Aðalgeirsdóttir G, Drijfhout SS, et al. 2021.. Ocean, cryosphere and sea level change. . In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. V Masson-Delmotte, P Zhai, A Pirani, SL Connors, C Péan , et al., pp. 1211362. Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Frank T, Åkesson H, de Fleurian B, Morlighem M, Nisancioglu KH. 2022.. Geometric controls of tidewater glacier dynamics. . Cryosphere 16::581601
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Fretwell P, Pritchard HD, Vaughan DG, Bamber JL, Barrand NE, et al. 2013.. Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica. . Cryosphere 7::37593
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Fried MJ, Catania GA, Bartholomaus TC, Duncan D, Davis M, et al. 2015.. Distributed subglacial discharge drives significant submarine melt at a Greenland tidewater glacier. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 42::932836
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Fürst J, Durand G, Gillet-Chaulet F, Tavard L, Rankl M, et al. 2016.. The safety band of Antarctic ice shelves. . Nat. Clim. Change 6::47982
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Hall BL, Denton GH. 2000.. Extent and chronology of the Ross Sea ice sheet and the Wilson Piedmont Glacier along the Scott Coast at and since the last glacial maximum. . Geogr. Ann. A 82::33763
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Hall BL, Hoelzel AR, Baroni C, Denton GH, Le Boeuf BJ, et al. 2006.. Holocene elephant seal distribution implies warmer-than-present climate in the Ross Sea. . PNAS 103::1021317
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Hanson B, Hooke RLB. 2003.. Buckling rate and overhang development at a calving face. . J. Glaciol. 49::57786
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Holland DM, Thomas RH, De Young B, Ribergaard MH, Lyberth B. 2008.. Acceleration of Jakobshavn Isbræ triggered by warm subsurface ocean waters. . Nat. Geosci. 1::65964
    [Google Scholar]
  58. How P, Schild KM, Benn DI, Noormets R, Kirchner N, et al. 2019.. Calving controlled by melt-under-cutting: detailed calving styles revealed through time-lapse observations. . Ann. Glaciol. 60::2031
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Hughes T. 1989.. Calving ice walls. . Ann. Glaciol. 12::7480
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Hulbe C, Fahnestock M. 2007.. Century-scale discharge stagnation and reactivation of the Ross ice streams, West Antarctica. . J. Geophys. Res. 112:(F3):F03S27
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Hunter LE, Powell RD. 1998.. Ice foot development at temperate tidewater margins in Alaska. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 25::192326
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Jacobs S, Macayeal D, Ardai J. 1986.. The recent advance of the Ross Ice Shelf Antarctica. . J Glaciol. 32::46474
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Jaeger JC, Cook NGW. 1979.. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics. New York:: Chapman and Hall
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Jakobsson M, Nilsson J, O'Regan M, Backman J, Löwemark L, et al. 2010.. An Arctic Ocean ice shelf during MIS 6 constrained by new geophysical and geological data. . Quat. Sci. Rev. 29::350517
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Jeffreys H. 1947.. The relation of cohesion to Roche's limit. . MNRAS 107::26062
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Joughin I, Howat I, Fahnestock M, Smith B, Krabill W, et al. 2008.. Continued evolution of Jakobshavn Isbrae following its rapid speedup. . J. Geophys. Res. 113:(F4):F04006
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Joughin I, Shean DE, Smith BE, Floricioiu D. 2020.. A decade of variability on Jakobshavn Isbræ: Ocean temperatures pace speed through influence on mélange rigidity. . Cryosphere 14::21127
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Joughin I, Smith B, Howat I, Floricioiu D, Alley RB, et al. 2012.. Seasonal to decadal scale variations in the surface velocity of Jakobshavn Isbrae, Greenland: observation and model-based analysis. . J. Geophys. Res. 117:(F2):F02030
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Kääb A, Jacquemart M, Gilbert A, Leinss S, Girod L, et al. 2021.. Sudden large-volume detachments of low-angle mountain glaciers—more frequent than thought?. Cryosphere 15::175185
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Kingslake J, Ely JC, Das I, Bell RE. 2017.. Widespread movement of meltwater onto and across Antarctic ice shelves. . Nature 544::34952
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Kingslake J, Scherer RP, Albrecht T, Coenen J, Powell RD, et al. 2018.. Extensive retreat and re-advance of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet during the Holocene. . Nature 558::43034
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Laffin MK, Zender CS, van Wessem M, Marinsek S. 2022.. The role of föhn winds in eastern Antarctic Peninsula rapid ice shelf collapse. . Cryosphere 16::136981
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Lampkin DJ, Amador N, Parizek BR, Farness K, Jezek K. 2013.. Drainage from water-filled crevasses along the margins of Jakobshavn Isbræ: a potential catalyst for catchment expansion. . J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 118::795813
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Larour E, Rignot E, Poinelli M, Scheuchl B. 2021.. Physical processes controlling the rifting of Larsen C Ice Shelf, Antarctica, prior to the calving of iceberg A68. . PNAS 118::e2105080118
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lazzara MA, Jezek KC, Scambos TA, MacAyeal DR, Van der Veen CJ. 1999.. On the recent calving of icebergs from the Ross Ice Shelf. . Polar Geogr. 23::20112
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Lemke P, Ren J, Alley RB, Allison I, Carrasco J, et al. 2007.. Observations: changes in snow, ice and frozen ground. . In Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S Solomon, D Qin, M Manning, Z Chen, M Marquis, et al. , pp. 337384 Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Lewis KJ, Fountain AG, Dana GL. 1999.. How important is terminus cliff melt? A study of the Canada Glacier terminus, Taylor Valley, Antarctica. . Glob. Planet. Change 22::105116
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Lhermitte S, Sun S, Shuman C, Wouters B, Pattyn F, et al. 2020.. Damage accelerates ice shelf instability and mass loss in Amundsen Sea Embayment. . PNAS 117::2473541
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Lipovsky BP. 2020.. Ice shelf rift propagation: stability, three-dimensional effects, and the role of marginal weakening. . Cryosphere 14::167383
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Lüthi MP, Vieli A. 2016.. Multi-method observation and analysis of a tsunami caused by glacier calving. . Cryosphere 10::9951002
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Ma Y, Bassis JN. 2019.. The effect of submarine melting on calving from marine terminating glaciers. . J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 124::33446
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Ma Y, Tripathy CS, Bassis JN. 2017.. Bounds on the calving cliff height of marine terminating glaciers. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 44::136975
    [Google Scholar]
  83. MacAyeal DR, Okal EA, Aster RC, Bassis JN, Brunt KM, et al. 2006.. Transoceanic wave propagation links iceberg calving margins of Antarctica with storms in tropics and Northern Hemisphere. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 33::L17502
    [Google Scholar]
  84. MacAyeal DR, Scambos T, Hulbe C, Fahnestock M. 2003.. Catastrophic ice-shelf break-up by an ice-shelf-fragment-capsize mechanism. . J. Glaciol. 49::2236
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Marcott SA, Clark PU, Padman L, Klinkhammer GP, Springer SR, et al. 2011.. Ice-shelf collapse from subsurface warming as a trigger for Heinrich events. . PNAS 108::1341519
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Mariotte E. 1718 (1686).. Traite du Mouvement des Eaux et des Autres Corps Fluides, transl. JT Desaguliers . London:: J. Senex and W. Taylor
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Massom RA, Giles AB, Warner RC, Fricker HA, Legrésy B, et al. 2015.. External influences on the Mertz Glacier Tongue (East Antarctica) in the decade leading up to its calving in 2010. . J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 120::490506
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Massom RA, Scambos TA, Bennetts LG, Reid P, Squire VA, Stammerjohn SE. 2018.. Antarctic ice shelf disintegration triggered by sea ice loss and ocean swell. . Nature 558::38389
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Meier MF, Post A. 1987.. Fast tidewater glaciers. . J. Geophys. Res. 92:(B9):905158
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Melton S, Alley RB, Anandakrishnan S, Parizek B, Shahin M, et al. 2022.. Meltwater drainage and iceberg calving observed in high-spatiotemporal resolution at Helheim Glacier, Greenland. . J. Glaciol. 68::81228
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Miles BWJ, Stokes CR, Jamieson SSR. 2017.. Simultaneous disintegration of outlet glaciers in Porpoise Bay (Wilkes Land), East Antarctica, driven by sea ice break-up. . Cryosphere 11::42742
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Miles BWJ, Stokes CR, Jenkins A, Jordan JR, Jamieson SSR, Gudmundsson GH. 2020.. Intermittent structural weakening and acceleration of the Thwaites Glacier Tongue between 2000 and 2018. . J. Glaciol. 66::48595
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Murray T, Nettles M, Selmes N, Cathles LM, Burton JC, et al. 2015.. Reverse glacier motion during iceberg calving and the cause of glacial earthquakes. . Science 349::3058
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Nolan M, Motkya RJ, Echelmeyer K, Trabant DC. 1995.. Ice-thickness measurements of Taku Glacier, Alaska, USA, and their relevance to its recent behavior. . J. Glaciol. 41::54153
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Normandeau A, MacKillop K, Macquarrie M, Richards C, Bourgault D, et al. 2021.. Submarine landslides triggered by iceberg collision with the seafloor. . Nat. Geosci. 14::599605
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Oddo PC, Lee BS, Garner GG, Srikrishnan V, Reed PM, et al. 2020.. Deep uncertainties in sea-level rise and storm surge projections: implications for coastal flood risk management. . Risk Anal. 40::15368
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Olsen KG, Nettles M. 2017.. Patterns in glacial-earthquake activity around Greenland, 2011–13. . J. Glaciol. 63::107789
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Parizek BR, Alley RB, Dupont TK, Walker RT, Anandakrishnan S. 2010.. Effect of orbital-scale climate cycling and meltwater drainage on ice sheet grounding line migration. . J. Geophys. Res. 115::F01011
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Parizek BR, Christianson K, Alley RB, Voytenko D, Vaňková I, et al. 2019.. Ice-cliff failure via retrogressive slumping. . Geology 47::44952
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Pollard D, DeConto RM, Alley RB. 2015.. Potential Antarctic Ice Sheet retreat driven by hydrofracturing and ice cliff failure. . Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 412::11221
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Post A. 1997.. Passive and active iceberg producing glaciers. . In Calving glaciers: report of a workshop, February 28–March 2, 1997, ed. CJ Van der Veen , pp. 12136 BPRC Report No. 15 , The Ohio State Univ., Byrd Polar Res. Cent., Columbus, OH:
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Rignot E, Fenty I, Xu Y, Cai C, Kemp C. 2015.. Undercutting of marine-terminating glaciers in West Greenland. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 42::590917
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Rignot E, Mouginot J, Morlighem M, Seroussi H, Scheuchl B. 2014.. Widespread, rapid grounding line retreat of Pine Island, Thwaites, Smith, and Kohler glaciers, West Antarctica, from 1992 to 2011. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 41::35029
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Rink H. 1853.. On the large continental ice of Greenland, and the origin of icebergs in the Arctic. . J. R. Geogr. Soc. Lond. 23::14554
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Robel AA, Banwell AF. 2019.. A speed limit on ice shelf collapse through hydrofracture. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 46::12092100
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Robel AA, Pegler S, Catania G, Felikson D, Simkins L. 2022.. Ambiguous stability of glaciers at bed peaks. . J. Glaciol. 2022::18
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Röhl K. 2006.. Thermo-erosional notch development at fresh-water-calving Tasman Glacier, New Zealand. . J. Glaciol. 52::20313
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Rott H, Skvarca P, Nagler T. 1996.. Rapid collapse of northern Larsen ice shelf, Antarctica. . Science 271::78892
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Scambos T, Fricker HA, Liu CC, Bohlander J, Fastook J, et al. 2009.. Ice shelf disintegration by plate bending and hydro-fracture: satellite observations and model results of the 2008 Wilkins ice shelf break-ups. . Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 280::5160
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Scambos TA, Bohlander JA, Shuman CA, Skvarca P. 2004.. Glacier acceleration and thinning after ice shelf collapse in the Larsen B embayment, Antarctica. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 31::L18402
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Schlemm T, Feldmann J, Winkelmann R, Levermann A. 2022.. Stabilizing effect of mélange buttressing on the marine ice-cliff instability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. . Cryosphere 16::197996
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Shepherd A, Wingham D, Payne T, Skvarca P. 2003.. Larsen ice shelf has progressively thinned. . Science 302::85659
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Shoji H, Higashi A. 1978.. A deformation mechanism map of ice. . J. Glaciol. 21::41927
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Slater DA, Benn DI, Cowton TR, Bassis JN, Todd JA. 2021.. Calving multiplier effect controlled by melt undercut geometry. . J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 126::e2021JF006191
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Stevens CL, Sirguey P, Leonard GH, Haskell TG. 2013.. Brief Communication “The 2013 Erebus Glacier Tongue calving event.”. Cryosphere 7::133337
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Sugiyama S, Minowa M, Schaefer M. 2019.. Underwater ice terrace observed at the front of Glaciar Grey, a freshwater calving glacier in Patagonia. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 46::26029
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Sun S, Pattyn F, Simon EG, Albrecht T, Cornford S, et al. 2020.. Antarctic ice sheet response to sudden and sustained ice-shelf collapse (ABUMIP). . J. Glaciol. 66::891904
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Thoma M, Jenkins A, Holland D, Jacobs S. 2008.. Modelling circumpolar deep water intrusions on the Amundsen Sea continental shelf, Antarctica. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 35::L18602
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Truffer M, Motyka RJ. 2016.. Where glaciers meet water: subaqueous melt and its relevance to glaciers in various settings. . Rev. Geophys. 54::22039
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Trusel LD, Pan Z, Moussavi M. 2022.. Repeated tidally induced hydrofracture of a supraglacial lake at the Amery Ice Shelf grounding zone. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 49::e2021GL095661
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Van der Veen СJ. 1996.. Tidewater calving. . J. Glaciol 42::37585
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Van der Veen CJ. 2002.. Calving glaciers. . Prog. Phys. Geogr. 26::96122
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Vaughan DG. 1993.. Relating the occurrence of crevasses to surface strain rates. . J. Glaciol. 39::25566
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Walker CC, Bassis JN, Fricker HA, Czerwinski RJ. 2013.. Structural and environmental controls on Antarctic ice shelf rift propagation inferred from satellite monitoring. . J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 118::235464
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Walker CC, Becker MK, Fricker HA. 2021.. A high resolution, three-dimensional view of the D-28 calving event from Amery Ice Shelf with ICESat-2 and satellite imagery. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 48::e2020GL091200
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Walter F, O'Neel S, McNamara D, Pfeffer WT, Bassis JN, Fricker HA. 2010.. Iceberg calving during transition from grounded to floating ice: Columbia Glacier, Alaska. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 37::L15501
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Wang S, Liu H, Jezek K, Alley RB, Wang L, et al. 2022.. Controls on Larsen C Ice Shelf retreat from a 60-year satellite data record. . J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 127::e2021JF006346
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Watkins RH, Bassis JN, Thouless MD. 2021.. Roughness of ice shelves is correlated with basal melt rates. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 48::e2021GL094743
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Weertman J. 1957.. Deformation of floating ice shelves. . J. Glaciol. 3::3842
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Williams E. 1957.. Some observations of Leonardo, Galileo, Mariotte and others relative to size effect. . Ann. Sci. 13::2329
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Winkler M, Kaser G, Cullen NJ, Mölg T, Hardy DR, Pfeffer WT. 2010.. Land-based marginal ice cliffs: focus on Kilimanjaro. . Erdkunde 64::17993
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Wood M, Rignot E, Fenty I, An L, Bjørk A, et al. 2021.. Ocean forcing drives glacier retreat in Greenland. . Sci. Adv. 7::eaba7282
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Xie S, Dixon TH, Holland DM, Voytenko D, Vaňková I. 2019.. Rapid iceberg calving following removal of tightly packed pro-glacial mélange. . Nat. Commun. 10::3250
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-110916
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-110916
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error