1932

Abstract

Soil is the central interface of Earth's critical zone—the planetary surface layer extending from unaltered bedrock to the vegetation canopy—and is under intense pressure from human demand for biomass, water, and food resources. Soil functions are flows and transformations of mass, energy, and genetic information that connect soil to the wider critical zone, transmitting the impacts of human activity at the land surface and providing a control point for beneficial human intervention. Soil functions are manifest during bedrock weathering and, in fully developed soil profiles, correlate with the porosity architecture of soil structure and arise from the development of soil aggregates as fundamental ecological units. Advances in knowledge on the mechanistic processes of soil functions, their connection throughout the critical zone, and their quantitative representation in mathematical and computational models define research frontiers that address the major global challenges of critical zone resource provisioning for human benefit.

  • ▪  Connecting the mechanisms of soil functions with critical zone processes defines integrating science to tackle challenges of climate change and food and water supply.
  • ▪  Soil functions, which develop through formation of soil aggregates as fundamental eco-logical units, are manifest at the earliest stages of critical zone evolution.
  • ▪  Global degradation of soil functions during the Anthropocene is reversible through positive human intervention in soil as a central control point in Earth's critical zone.
  • ▪  Measurement and mathematical translation of soil functions and critical zone processes offer new computational approaches for basic and applied geosciences research.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-063016-020544
2019-05-30
2024-10-07
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/earth/47/1/annurev-earth-063016-020544.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-063016-020544&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Allison SD, Wallenstein MD, Bradford MA 2010. Soil-carbon response to warming dependent on microbial physiology. Nat. Geosci. 3:336–40
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Amundson R, Berhe AA, Hopmans JW, Olson C, Sztein AE, Sparks DL 2015. Soil and human security in the 21st century. Science 348:1261071
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Banwart SA 2011. Save our soils. Nature 474:151–52
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Banwart SA, Berg A, Beerling DJ 2009. Process-based modeling of silicate mineral weathering responses to increasing atmospheric CO2 and climate change. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 23:GB4013
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Banwart SA, Bernasconi SM, Blum WEH, de Souza DM, Chabaux F et al. 2017. Soil functions in Earth's critical zone: key results and conclusions. Adv. Agron. 142:1–27
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Banwart SA, Black H, Cai Z, Gicheru P, Joosten H et al. 2015. The global challenge for soil carbon. Soil Carbon: Science, Management, and Policy for Multiple Benefits SA Banwart, E Noellemeyer, E Milne 1–9 Sci. Comm. Probl. Environ. Ser. 71 Wallingford, UK: CABI
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Bardgett RD, van der Putten WH 2014. Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Nature 515:505–11
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Bazilevskaya E, Rother G, Mildner DFR, Pavich M, Cole D et al. 2014. How oxidation and dissolution in diabase and granite control porosity during weathering. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 79:55–73
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Beck HE, Bruijnzeel LA, van Dijk AIJM, McVicar TR, Scatena FN, Schellekens J 2013. The impact of forest regeneration on streamflow in 12 mesoscale humid tropical catchments. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 17:2613–35
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bellamy PH, Loveland PJ, Bradley RI, Lark RM, Kirk GJD 2005. Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978–2003. Nature 437:245–48
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Benbi DK, Boparai AK, Brar K 2014. Decomposition of particulate organic matter is more sensitive to temperature than the mineral associated organic matter. Soil Biol. Biochem. 70:183–92
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Blum WEH 2005. Functions of soil for society and the environment. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio/Technol. 4:75–79
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bonan GB 2008. Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefit of forests. Science 320:1444–49
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Brantley SL, Eissenstat DM, Marshall JA, Godsey SE, Balogh-Brunstad Z et al. 2017. Reviews and syntheses: on the roles trees play in building and plumbing the critical zone. Biogeosciences 14:5115–42
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Brevik EC 2012. Soils and climate change: gas fluxes and soil properties. Soil Horiz 53:412–23
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Brevik EC 2013. The potential impact of climate change on soil properties and processes and corresponding influence on food security. Agriculture 3:398–417
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Carey JC, Tang J, Templer PH, Kroeger KD, Crowther TW et al. 2016. Temperature response of soil respiration largely unaltered with experimental warming. PNAS 113:4813797–802
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Chang R, Jin T, Lu Y, Liu G, Fu B 2014. Soil carbon and nitrogen changes following afforestation of marginal cropland across a precipitation gradient in Loess Plateau of China. PLOS ONE 9:1e85426
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Cheeke TE, Phillips RP, Brzostek ER, Rosling A, Bever JD, Fransson P 2017. Dominant mycorrhizal association of trees alters carbon and nutrient cycling by selecting for microbial groups with distinct enzyme function. New Phytol 214:432–42
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Chen C, Dynes J, Wang J, Karunakaran C, Sparks DL 2014a. Soft X-ray spectromicroscopy study of mineral-organic matter associations in pasture soil clay fractions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48:126678–86
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Chen C, Dynes J, Wang J, Sparks DL 2014b. Properties of Fe-organic matter associations via coprecipitation versus adsorption. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48:2313751–59
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Chen C, Kukkadapu R, Sparks DL 2015. Influence of coprecipitated organic matter on Fe2+(aq)-catalyzed transformation of ferrihydrite: implications for carbon dynamics. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49:1810927–36
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Chen C, Sparks DL 2015. Multi-elemental scanning transmission X-ray microscopy–near edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy assessment of organo–mineral associations in soils from reduced environments. Environ. Chem. 12:164–73
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Chen Q, An XL, Li H, Su JQ, Ma YB, Zhu YG 2016. Long-term field application of sewage sludge increases the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes in soil. Environ. Int. 92–93:1–10
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Chevallier T, Hmadi K, Kouakoua E, Bernoux M, Gallali T et al. 2015. Physical protection of soil carbon in macroaggregates does not reduce the temperature dependence of soil CO2 emissions. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 178:592–600
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Conant RT, Ryan MG, Agren GI, Birge HE, Davidson EA et al. 2011. Temperature and soil organic matter decomposition rates—synthesis of current knowledge and a way forward. Glob. Change Biol. 17:3392–404
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Costanza R, Daly HE 1992. Natural capital and sustainable development. Conserv. Biol. 6:37–46
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Davidson EA, Janssens IA 2006. Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature 440:9165–73
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Delgado-Baquerizo M, Maestre F, Reich PB, Jeffries TC, Gaitan JJ et al. 2016. Microbial diversity drives multifunctionality in terrestrial ecosystems. Nat. Commun. 7:10541
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Delgado-Baquerizo M, Reich PB, Khachane AN, Campbell CD, Thomas N et al. 2017. It is elemental: Soil nutrient stoichiometry drives bacterial diversity. Environ. Microbiol. 19:31176–88
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Dequiedt S, Saby NPA, Lelievre M, Jolivet C, Thioulouse J et al. 2011. Biogeographical patterns of soil molecular microbial biomass as influenced by soil characteristics and management. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 20:641–52
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Dequiedt S, Thioulouse J, Jolivet C, Saby NPA, Lelievre M et al. 2009. Biogeographical patterns of soil bacterial communities. Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 1:4251–55
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Dexter AR 2004. Soil physical quality: Part I. Theory, effects of soil texture, density, and organic matter, and effects on root growth. Geoderma 120:201–14
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Dominati E, Patterson M, Mackay A 2010. A framework for classifying and quantifying the natural capital and ecosystem services of soils. Ecol. Econ. 69:1858–68
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Duffy C, Nikolaidis N 2014. Soil hydrology and reactive transport of carbon and nitrogen in a multi-scale landscape. Soil Carbon: Science, Management, and Policy for Multiple Benefits SA Banwart, E Noellemeyer, E Milne 108–18 Sci. Comm. Probl. Environ. Ser. 71 Wallingford, UK: CABI
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Edwards AP, Bremner JM 1967. Microaggregates in soils. J. Soil Sci. 18:64–73
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Ellison D, Futter MN, Bishop K 2012. On the forest cover–water yield debate: from demand- to supply-side thinking. Glob. Change Biol. 18:806–20
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Fahey TJ, Woodbury PB, Battles JJ, Goodale CL, Hamburg SP et al. 2010. Forest carbon storage: ecology, management, and policy. Front. Ecol. Environ. 8:245–52
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Faucon M-P, Houben D, Lambers H 2017. Plant functional traits: soil and ecosystem services. Trends Plant Sci 22:5385–94
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Fierer N, Jackson RB 2006. The diversity and biogeography of soil bacterial communities. PNAS 103:3626–31
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Fierer N, Leff JW, Adams BJ, Nelson UN, Bates ST et al. 2012. Cross-biome metagenomics analyses of soil microbial communities and their functional attributes. PNAS 109:21390–95
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Fitter AH 2005. Darkness visible: reflections on underground ecology. J. Ecol. 93:231–43
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Foresight. 2010. Annex 1 (China State Council Plan), medium-and long-term plan for national food security (2008–2020). The Future of Food and Farming—Implications for China26–27 London: Foresight
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Friedlingstein P 2015. Carbon cycle feedbacks and future climate change. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 373:20140421
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Giannakis GV, Nikolaidis NP, Valstar J, Rowe EC, Moirogiorgou K et al. 2017. Integrated critical zone model (1D-ICZ): a tool for dynamic simulation of soil functions and soil structure. Adv. Agron. 142:277–314
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Godfray CH, Beddington JR, Crute IR, Haddad L, Lawrence D et al. 2010. Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 327:812–18
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Goldhaber M, Banwart SA 2015. Soil formation. Soil Carbon: Science, Management, and Policy for Multiple Benefits SA Banwart, E Noellemeyer, E Milne 82–97 Sci. Comm. Probl. Environ. Ser. 71 Wallingford, UK: CABI
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Graham RM, Rossi AC, Hubbert KR 2010. Rock to regolith conversion: producing hospitable substrates for terrestrial ecosystems. GSA Today 20:24–9
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Griffiths RI, Thomson BC, James P, Bell T, Bailey M, Whiteley AS 2011. The bacterial biogeography of British soils. Environ. Microbiol. 13:61642–54
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Gyssels G, Poesen J, Bochet E, Li Y 2005. Impact of plant roots on the resistance of soils to erosion by water: a review. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 29:2189–217
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Hahm WJ, Dietrich WE, Dawson TE 2018. Controls on the distribution and resilience of Quercus garryana: ecophysiological evidence of oak's water-limitation tolerance. Ecosphere 9:5e02218
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Hansen MC, Potapov PV, Moore R, Hancher M, Turubanova SA et al. 2013. High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science 342:850–53
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hawtree D, Nunes JP, Keizer JJ, Jacinto R, Santos J et al. 2015. Time series analysis of the long-term hydrologic impacts of afforestation in the Águeda watershed of north-central Portugal. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 19:73033–45
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Ilstedt U, Malmer A, Verbeeten E, Murdiyarso D 2007. The effect of afforestation on water infiltration in the tropics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Forest Ecol. Manag. 251:1–245–51
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Jandl R, Lindner M, Vesterdal L, Bauwens B, Baritz R et al. 2007. How strongly can forest management influence soil carbon sequestration?. Geoderma 137:3–4253–68
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Jiao N, Herndl GJ, Hansell DA, Benner R, Kattner G et al. 2010. Microbial production of recalcitrant dissolved organic matter: long-term carbon storage in the global ocean. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 8:593–99
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Jones A, Stolbovoy V, Rusco E, Gentile AR, Gardi G et al. 2009. Climate change in Europe. 2. Impact on soil. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 29:423–32
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Jónsson JÖG, Davidsdottir B, Nikolaidis NP 2017. Valuation of soil ecosystem services. Adv. Agron. 142:353–84
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Karhu K, Fritze H, Tuomi M, Vanhala P, Spetz P et al. 2010. Temperature sensitivity of organic matter decomposition in two boreal forest soil profiles. Soil Biol. Biochem. 42:72–82
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Keil RG, Mayer LM 2014. Mineral matrices and organic matter. Treatise on Geochemistry HD Holland, KK Turekian 337–59 Amsterdam: Elsevier. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Keil RG, Montluçon DB, Prahl FG, Hedges JI 1994. Sorptive preservation of labile organic matter in marine sediments. Nature 370:549–52
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Kirschbaum MUF 1995. The temperature dependence of soil organic matter decomposition, and the effect of global warming on soil organic C storage. Soil Biol. Biochem. 27:6753–60
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Kleber M, Sollins P, Sutton R 2007. A conceptual model of organo-mineral interactions in soils: self-assembly of organic molecular fragments into zonal structures on mineral surfaces. Biogeochemistry 85:9–24
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Kotronakis M, Giannakis GV, Nikolaidis NP, Rowe EC, Valstar J et al. 2017. Modeling the impact of carbon amendments on soil ecosystem functions using the 1D-ICZ model. Adv. Agron. 142:315–51
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Kurylyk BL, MacQuarrie TB, McKenzie JM 2014. Climate change impacts on groundwater and soil temperatures in cold and temperate regions: implications, mathematical theory, and emerging simulation tools. Earth-Sci. Rev. 138:313–34
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Lacombe G, Ribolzi O, de Rouw A, Pierret A, Latsachak K et al. 2016. Contradictory hydrological impacts of afforestation in the humid tropics evidenced by long-term field monitoring and simulation modelling. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 20:72691–704
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Lal R 2005. Forest soils and carbon sequestration. For. Ecol. Manag. 220:242–58
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Lambin EF, Meyfroidt P 2011. Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. PNAS 108:93465–72
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Leake JR, Johnson D, Donnelly D, Muckle G, Boddy L, Read DJ 2004. Networks of power and influence: the role of mycorrhizal mycelium in controlling plant communities and agroecosystem functioning. Can. J. Bot. 82:1016–45
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Leake JR, Ostle NJ, Rangel-Castro JI, Johnson D 2006. Carbon fluxes from plants through soil organisms determined by field 13CO2 pulse-labelling in an upland grassland. Appl. Soil Ecol. 33:152–75
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Lebedeva MI, Brantley SL 2017. Weathering and erosion of fractured bedrock systems. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 42:2090–108
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Li D, Niu S, Luo Y 2012. Global patterns of the dynamics of soil carbon and nitrogen stocks following afforestation: a meta-analysis. New Phytol 195:172–81
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Liang C, Schimel JP, Jastrow JD 2017. The importance of anabolism in microbial control over soil carbon storage. Nat. Microbiol. 2:17105
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Liu X, Vitousek P, Chang Y, Zhang W, Matson P, Zhang F 2016. Evidence for a historic change occurring in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50:505–6
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lorenz K, Lal R 2014. Soil organic carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 34:2443–54
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Meyfroidt P, Rudel TK, Lambin EF 2010. Forest transitions, trade, and the global displacement of land use. PNAS 107:4920917–22
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Mikutta R, Mikutta C, Kalbitz K, Scheel T, Kaiser K, Jahn R 2007. Biodegradation of forest floor organic matter bound to minerals via different binding mechanisms. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 71:2569–90
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Milne E, Banwart SA, Noellemeyer E, Abson DJ, Ballabio C et al. 2015. Soil carbon, multiple benefits. Environ. Dev. 13:33–38
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Natl. Res. Counc. 2001. Basic Research Opportunities in Earth Science Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Navarre-Stitchler A, Brantley SL 2015. How porosity increases during incipient weathering of crystalline silicate rocks. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 80:331–54
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Nave LE, Swanston CW, Mishra U, Nadelhoffer KJ 2012. Afforestation effects on soil carbon storage in the United States: a synthesis. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 77:31035–47
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Nikolaidis NP, Bidoglio G 2013. Soil organic matter dynamics and structure. Sustain. Agric. Rev. 12:175–200
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Niu X, Duiker SW 2006. Carbon sequestration potential by afforestation of marginal agricultural land in the Midwestern U.S. For. Ecol. Manag. 223:415–27
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Panakoulia SK, Nikolaidis NP, Paranychianakis NV, Menon M, Schiefer J et al. 2017. Factors controlling soil structure dynamics and carbon sequestration across different climatic and lithological conditions. Adv. Agron. 142:241–76
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Pascault N, Ranjard L, Kaisermann A, Bachar D, Christen R et al. 2013. Stimulation of different functional groups of bacteria by various plant residues as a driver of soil priming effect. Ecosystems 16:810–22
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Pascual U, Termanssen M, Absom DJ 2015. The economic value of soil carbon. Soil Carbon: Science, Management, and Policy for Multiple Benefits SA Banwart, E Noellemeyer, E Milne 179–87 Sci. Comm. Probl. Environ. Ser. 71 Wallingford, UK: CABI
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Peterson ME, Curtin D, Thomas S, Clough TJ, Meenken ED 2013. Denitrification in vadose zone material amended with dissolved organic matter from topsoil and subsoil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 61:96–104
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Philippot L, Spor A, Henault C, Bru D, Bizouard F et al. 2013. Loss in microbial diversity affects nitrogen cycling in soil. ISME J 7:1609–19
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Piao S, Sitch S, Ciais P, Friedlinstein P, Peylin P et al. 2013. Evaluation of terrestrial carbon cycle models for tier response to climatic variability and to CO2 trends. Glob. Change Biol. 19:72117–32
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Plante AF, Conant RT, Carlson J, Greenwood R, Shulman JM et al. 2010. Decomposition temperature sensitivity of isolated soil organic matter fractions. Soil Biol. Biochem. 42:1991–96
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Pries CEH, Castanha C, Porras RC, Torn MS 2017. The whole-soil carbon flux in response to warming. Science 355:63321420–23
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Prober SM, Leff JW, Bates ST, Borer ET, Firn J 2015. Plant diversity predicts beta but not alpha diversity of soil microbes across grasslands worldwide. Ecol. Lett. 18:85–95
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Qin S, Hu C, Clough TJ, Luo J, Oenema O, Zhou S 2017. Irrigation of DOC-rich liquid promotes potential denitrification rate and decreases N2O/(N2O+N2) product ratio in a 0–2 m soil profile. Soil Biol. Biochem. 106:1–8
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Quirk J, Beerling D, Banwart SA, Kakonyi G, Romero-Gonzalez M, Leake JR 2012. Evolution of trees and mycorrhizal fungi intensifies silicate mineral weathering. Biol. Lett. 8:61006–11
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Ranjard L, Dequiedt S, Prévost-Bouré NC, Thioulouse J, Saby NPA et al. 2013. Turnover of soil bacterial diversity driven by wide-scale environmental heterogeneity. Nat. Commun. 4:1434
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Regelink IC, Stoof CR, Rousseva S, Weng L, Lair GJ et al. 2015. Linkages between aggregate formation, porosity and soil chemical properties. Geoderma 247–248:24–37
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Reis FDAA, Brantley SL 2017. Models of transport and reaction describing weathering of fractured rock with mobile and immobile water. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 122:735–57
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Rempe DM, Dietrich WE 2018. Direct observations of rock moisture, a hidden component of the hydrologic cycle. PNAS 115:12664–69
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Richter DJ, Billings SA, Groffman PM, Kelly EF, Lohse KA et al. 2018. Advancing the biogeosciences in environmental research networks. Biogeosciences 15:4815–32
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Rillig MC, Aguilar-Trigueros CA, Bergmann J, Verbruggen E, Veresoglou SD, Lehmann A 2015. Plant root and mycorrhizal fungal traits for understanding soil aggregation. New Phytol 205:1385–88
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Robinson DA, Fraser I, Dominati EJ, Davíðsdóttir B, Jónsson JOG et al. 2014. On the value of soil resources in the context of natural capital and ecosystem service delivery. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 78:3685–700
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Rosenstock NP, Berner C, Smits MM, Krám P, Wallander H 2016. The role of phosphorus, magnesium and potassium availability in soil fungal exploration of mineral nutrient sources in Norway spruce forests. New Phytol 211:542–53
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Rosling A, Midgley MG, Cheeke T, Urbina H, Fransson P, Phillips RP 2016. Phosphorus cycling in deciduous forest soil differs between stands dominated by ecto- and arbuscular mycorrhizal trees. New Phytol 209:1184–95
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Rousseva S, Kercheva M, Shishkov T, Lair GJ, Nikolaidis NP 2017. Soil water characteristics of European SoilTrEC Critical Zone Observatories. Adv. Agron. 142:29–71
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Rudel TK, Schneider L, Uriarte M, Turner BL II, DeFries R et al. 2009. Agricultural intensification and changes in cultivated areas, 1970–2005. PNAS 106:4920675–80
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Schimel J, Balser TC, Wallenstein M 2007. Microbial stress-response physiology and its implications for ecosystem function. Ecology 88:1386–94
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Schimel J, Schaeffer SM 2012. Microbial control over carbon cycling in soil. Front. Microbiol. 3:348
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Schmalenberger A, Duran AAL, Bray AW, Bridge J, Bonneville S et al. 2015. Oxalate secretion by ectomycorrhizal Paxillus involutus is mineral-specific and controls calcium weathering from minerals. Sci. Rep. 5:12187
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Schmidt MWI, Torn MS, Abiven S, Dittmar T, Guggenberger G et al. 2011. Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478:49–56
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Séférian R, Delire C, Decharme B, Voldoire A, Salas y Melia D et al. 2016. Development and evaluation of CNRM Earth system model—CNRM-ESM1. Geosci. Model Dev. 9:1423–53
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Segoli M, De Gryze S, Dou F, Lee J, Aposya WM et al. 2013. AggModel: a soil organic matter model with measurable pools for use in incubation studies. Ecol. Model. 263:1–9
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Seneviratne S, Corti T, Davin EL, Hirschi M, Jaeger EB et al. 2010. Investigating soil moisture–climate interactions in a changing climate: a review. Earth-Sci. Rev. 99:125–61
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Shi S, Han P, Zhang P, Ding F, Ma C 2015. The impact of afforestation on soil organic carbon sequestration on the Qinghai Plateau, China. PLOS ONE 10:2e0116591
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Six J, Conant RT, Paul EA, Paustian K 2002a. Stabilization mechanisms of soil organic matter: implications for C-saturation of soils. Plant Soil 241:155–76
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Six J, Elliott ET, Pautian K 2000. Soil macroaggregate turnover and microaggregate formation: a mechanism for C sequestration under no-tillage agriculture. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32:2099–103
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Six J, Feller C, Denef K, Ogle SM, de Moraes Sa JC et al. 2002b. Soil organic matter, biota and aggregation in temperate and tropical soils—effects of no-tillage. Agronomie 22:755–75
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Smith P, House JI, Bustamante M, Sobocká J, Harper R et al. 2016. Global change pressures on soils from land use and management. Glob. Change Biol. 22:1008–28
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Sparks DL 2003. Environmental Soil Chemistry San Diego, CA: Academic. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  119. St. Clair J, Moon S, Holbrook WS, Perron JT, Riebe CS et al. 2015. Geophysical imaging reveals topographic stress control of bedrock weathering. Science 350:6260534–38
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Stamati F, Nikolaidis NP, Banwart SA, Blum WEH 2013. A coupled carbon, aggregation, and structure turnover (CAST) model for topsoils. Geoderma 211–212:51–64
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Stockmann U, Adams MA, Crawford JW, Field DJ, Henakaarchchi N et al. 2013. The knowns, known unknowns and unknowns of sequestration of soil organic carbon. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 164:80–99
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Su JQ, Xia Y, Yao HY, Li YY, An XL et al. 2017. Metagenomic assembly unravel microbial response to redox fluctuation in acid sulfate soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 105:244–52
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Taylor LL, Banwart SA, Valdes PJ, Leake JR, Beerling DJ 2012. Evaluating the effects of terrestrial ecosystems, climate and carbon dioxide on weathering over geological time: a global-scale process-based approach. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 367:565–82
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Taylor LL, Beerling DJ, Quegan S, Banwart SA 2017. Simulating carbon capture by enhanced weathering with croplands: an overview of key processes highlighting areas of future model development. Biol. Lett. 13:20160868
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Taylor LL, Leake JR, Quirk J, Hardy K, Banwart SA, Beerling DJ 2009. Biological weathering and the long-term carbon cycle: integrating mycorrhizal evolution and function into the current paradigm. Geobiology 7:171–91
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Taylor LL, Quirk J, Thorley RM, Kharecha PA, Hansen J et al. 2016. Enhanced weathering strategies for stabilizing climate and averting ocean acidification. Nat. Clim. Change 6:402–6
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Tedersoo L, Bahram M, Cajtham T, Põlme S, Hiiesalu I et al. 2016. Tree diversity and species identity effects on soil fungi, protists and animals are context dependent. ISME J 10:346–62
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Tiessen H, Cuevas E, Chacon P 1994. The role of soil organic matter in sustaining soil fertility. Nature 371:783–85
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Todd-Brown KEO, Randerson JT, Hopkins F, Arora V, Hajima T et al. 2014. Changes in soil organic carbon storage predicted by Earth system models during the 21st century. Biogeosciences 11:2341–56
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Torsvik V, Øvreås L 2002. Microbial diversity and function in soil: from genes to ecosystems. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 5:240–45
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Van der Heijden MGA, Bardgett RD, van Straalen NM 2008. The unseen majority: soil microbes as drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecol. Lett. 11:296–310
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Vereecken Η, Schnepf A, Hopmans JW, Javaux M, Or D et al. 2016. Modeling soil processes: review, key challenges, and new perspectives. Vadose Zone J 15:557
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Vogel C, Mueller CW, Höschen C, Buegger F, Heister K et al. 2014. Submicron structures provide preferential spots for carbon and nitrogen sequestration in soils. Nat. Commun. 5:2947
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Wagg C, Bender SF, Widmer F, van der Heijden MGA 2014. Soil biodiversity and soil community composition determine ecosystem multifunctionality. PNAS 111:5266–70
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Wang FH, Qiao M, Su JQ, Chen Z, Zhou X, Zhu YG 2014. High throughput profiling of antibiotic resistance genes in urban park soils with reclaimed water irrigation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48:9079–85
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Wang YP, Law RM, Pak B 2010. A global model of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles for the terrestrial biosphere. Biogeosciences 7:2261–82
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Wardle DA, Bardgett RD, Klironomos JN, Setala H, van der Putten WH, Wall DH 2004. Ecological linkages between aboveground and belowground biota. Science 304:1625–33
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Whitehead D 2011. Forests as carbon sinks—benefits and consequences. Tree Physiol 31:893–902
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Xie WY, McGrath SP, Su JQ, Hirsch PR, Clark IM et al. 2016. Long-term impact of field applications of sewage sludge on soil antibiotic resistome. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50:2312602–11
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Yan A 2016. China producing more grain than ever, but imports and shortfall still a problem. South China Morning Post March 7. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/1922268/china-producing-more-grain-ever-imports-and-shortfall
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Yan D, Li J, Pei J, Cui J, Nie M, Fang C 2017. The temperature sensitivity of soil organic carbon decomposition is greater in subsoil than in topsoil during laboratory incubation. Sci. Rep. 7:5181
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Zhou J, Gu B, Schlesinger WH, Ju X 2016. Significant accumulation of nitrate in Chinese semi-humid croplands. Sci. Rep. 6:25088
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Zhu YG, Gillings M, Simonet P, Stekel D, Banwart SA, Penuelas J 2017a. Microbial mass movements. Science 357:63561099–100
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Zhu YG, Gillings M, Simonet P, Stekel D, Banwart SA, Penuelas J 2018. Human dissemination of genes and microorganisms in Earth's Critical Zone. Glob. Change Biol. 24:1488–99
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Zhu YG, Reid BJ, Meharg AA, Banwart SA, Fu BJ 2017b. Optimizing Peri-URban Ecosystems (PURE) to re-couple urban-rural symbiosis. Sci. Total Environ. 586:1085–90
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-063016-020544
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-063016-020544
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplementary Data

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error