1932

Abstract

The oldest definitive pinniped fossils date from approximately 30.6–23 million years ago (Ma) in the North Pacific. Pinniped monophyly is consistently supported; the group shares a common ancestry with arctoid carnivorans, either ursids or musteloids. Crown pinnipeds comprise the Otariidae (fur seals and sea lions), Odobenidae (walruses), and Phocidae (seals), with paraphyletic “enaliarctines” falling outside the crown group. The position of extinct Desmatophocidae is debated; they are considered to be closely related to both otariids and odobenids or, alternatively, to phocids. Both otariids and odobenids are known from the North Pacific, diverging approximately 19 Ma, with phocids originating in the North Atlantic or Paratethys region 19–14 Ma. Our understanding of pinniped paleobiology has been enriched by studies that incorporate anatomical and behavioral data into a phylogenetic framework. There is now evidence for sexual dimorphism in the earliest pinnipeds, heralding polygynous breeding systems, followed by increased body sizes, diving capabilities, and diverse feeding strategies in later-diverging phocid and otarioid lineages.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010009
2018-05-30
2024-12-12
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/earth/46/1/annurev-earth-082517-010009.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010009&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Adam PJ, Berta A 2002. Evolution of prey capture strategies and diet in the Pinnipedimorpha (Mammalia, Carnivora). Oryctos 4:83–107
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Amson E, de Muizon C 2014. A new durophagous phocid (Mammalia: Carnivora) from the late Neogene of Peru and considerations on monachine seal phylogeny. J. Syst. Paleontol. 12:523–48
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Árnason U, Gullberg A, Janke A, Kullberg M, Lehman N et al. 2006. Pinniped phylogeny and a new hypothesis for their origin and dispersal. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 41:345–54
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Avery G, Klein RG 2011. Review of fossil phocid and otariid seals from the southern and western coasts of South Africa. Trans. R. Soc. S. Afr. 66:14–24
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Barnes LG 1979. Fossil enaliarctine pinnipeds (Mammalia: Otariidae) from Pyramid Hill, Kern County, California Contrib. Sci 318 Mus. Nat. Hist. Los Angeles Cty Los Angeles, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Barnes LG 1987. An early Miocene pinniped of the genus Desmatophoca (Mammalia: Otariidae) from Washington Contrib. Sci 382 Mus. Nat. Hist. Los Angeles Cty Los Angeles, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Barnes LG 1988. A new fossil pinniped (Mammalia: Otariidae) from the middle Miocene Sharktooth Hill bonebed, California Contrib. Sci 396 Mus. Nat. His. Los Angeles Cty Los Angeles, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Barnes LG 1989. A new enaliarctine pinniped from the Astoria Formation, Oregon, and a classification of the Otariidae (Mammalia: Carnivora) Contrib. Sci 403 Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Angeles Cty Los Angeles, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Barnes LG 1992. A new genus and species of middle Miocene enaliarctine pinniped (Mammalia: Carnivora) from the Astoria Formation in Coastal Oregon Contrib. Sci 431 Mus. Nat. Hist. Los Angeles Cty Los Angeles, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Barnes LG, Hirota K 1995. Miocene pinnipeds of the otariid subfamily Allodesminae in the North Pacific Ocean: systematics and relationships. Island Arc 3:329–60
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Barnes LG, Raschke RE 1991. Gomphotaria pugnax, a new genus and species of late Miocene dusignathine otariid pinniped (Mammalia: Carnivora) from California Contrib. Sci 426 Mus. Nat. Hist. Los Angeles Cty Los Angeles, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Barnes LG, Ray CE, Koretsky IA 2006. A new Pliocene sea lion Proterozetes ulysses (Mammalia: Otariidae) from Oregon, U.S.A. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Vertebrates and Paleoenvironments: Tributes to the Career of Prof. Dan Grigorescu Z Csiki 57–77 Bucharest: Ars Docendi
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bebej RM 2009. Swimming mode inferred from skeletal proportions in the fossil pinnipeds Enaliarctos and Allodesmus (Mammalia, Carnivora). J. Mammal. Evol. 16:77–97
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Berta A 1991. New Enaliarctos* (Pinnipedimorpha) from the Oligocene and Miocene of Oregon and “Enaliarctids” in Pinniped Phylogeny Smithson. Contrib. Paleobiol 69 Washington, DC: Smithson. Inst. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Berta A 1994.a A new species of phocoid pinniped Pinnarctidion from the early Miocene of Oregon. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 14:405–13
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Berta A 1994.b New Specimens of the Pinnipediform Pteronarctos from the Miocene of Oregon Smithson. Contrib. Paleobiol 78 Washington, DC: Smithson. Inst. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Berta A 1995. Fossil carnivores from Leisey Shell Pits. Bull. Fla. Mus. Nat. Hist. 37:463–99
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Berta A, Adam PJ 2001. Evolutionary biology of Pinnipeds. Secondary Adaptation of Tetrapods to Life in Water: Proceedings of the International Meeting, Poiters, 1996, JM Mazin, V de Buffrénil 235–58 Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Berta A, Churchill M 2012. Pinniped taxonomy: review of currently recognized species and subspecies, and evidence used for their description. Mammal. Rev. 42:207–34
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Berta A, Deméré TA 1986. Callorhinus gilmorei n. sp., (Carnivora: Otariidae) from the San Diego Formation (Blancan) and its implications for otariid phylogeny. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 21:111–26
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Berta A, Kienle S, Bianucci G, Sorbi S 2015.a A re-evaluation of Pliophoca etrusca (Pinnipedia, Phocidae) from the Pliocene of Italy: phylogenetic and biogeographic implications. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 35:e889144
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Berta A, Ray CE 1990. Skeletal morphology and locomotor capabilities of the archaic pinniped Enaliarctos mealsi. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 10:141–57
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Berta A, Ray CE, Wyss AR 1989. Skeleton of the oldest known pinniped. Enaliarctos mealsi. Science 244:60–62
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Berta A, Sumich JL, Kovacs KM 2015.b Marine Mammals: Evolutionary Biology San Diego, CA: Academic, 3rd ed.
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Berta A, Wyss AR 1994. Pinniped phylogeny. Proc. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 29:33–56
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Bianucci G, Gatt M, Catanzariti R, Sorbi S, Bonavia CG et al. 2011. Systematics, biostratigraphy and evolutionary pattern of the Oligo–Miocene marine mammals from the Maltese Islands. Geobios 44:549–85
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Bigelow PK 1994. Occurrence of a squaloid shark (Chondrichthyes: Squaliformes) with the pinniped Allodesmus from the upper Miocene of Washington. J. Paleontol. 68:680–84
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Bininda-Emonds ORP, Gittleman JL, Purvis A 1999. Building large trees by combining information: a complete phylogeny of the extant Carnivora (Mammalia). Biol. Rev. 74:143–75
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Bininda-Emonds ORP, Russell AP 1996. A Morphological Perspective on the Phylogenetic Relationships of the Extant Phocid Seals (Mammalia: Carnivora: Phocidae) Bonn. Zool. Monogr 41 Bonn, Ger: Zool. Forschunginst
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Boessenecker RW 2011. New records of the fur seal Callorhinus (Carnivora: Otariidae) from the Plio-Pleistocene Rio Dell Formation of Northern California and comments on otariid dental evolution. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 31:454–67
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Boessenecker RW 2013.a A new marine vertebrate assemblage from the Late Neogene Purisima Formation in Central California. Part II. Pinnipeds and cetaceans. Geodiversitas 35:815–940
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Boessenecker RW 2013.b Taphonomic implications of barnacle encrusted sea lion bones from the Middle Pleistocene Port Orford Formation, coastal Oregon. J. Paleontol. 87:657–63
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Boessenecker RW, Churchill M 2013. A reevaluation of the morphology, paleoecology, and phylogenetic relationships of the enigmatic walrus Pelagiarctos. . PLOS ONE 8:e54311
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Boessenecker RW, Churchill M 2015. The oldest known fur seal. Biol. Lett. 11:20140835
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Boessenecker RW, Churchill M 2016. The origin of elephant seals: implications of a fragmentary late Pliocene seal (Phocidae: Miroungini) from New Zealand. N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys. 59:544–50
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Boessenecker RW, Churchill M 2018. The last of the desmatophocid seals: a new species of Allodesmus from the upper Miocene of Washington, USA, and a revision of the taxonomy of Desmatophocidae.. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. https://doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx098
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. Boessenecker RW, Perry FA 2011. Mammalian bite marks on juvenile fur seal bones from the late Neogene Purisima Formation of Central California. Palaios 26:115–20
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Boessenecker RW, Perry FA, Schmitt JG 2014. Comparative taphonomy, taphofacies, and bonebeds of the Mio-Pliocene Purisima Formation, Central California: strong physical control on marine vertebrate preservation in shallow marine settings. PLOS ONE 9:e91419
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Burton RK, Snodgrass JJ, Gifford-Gonzalez D, Guilderson T, Brown T, Koch PL 2001. Holocene changes in the ecology of northern fur seals: insights from stable isotopes and archaeofauna. Oecologia 128:107–15
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Churchill M, Boessenecker RW 2016. Taxonomy and biogeography of the Pleistocene New Zealand sea lion Neophoca palatina (Carnivora: Otariidae). J. Paleontol. 90:375–88
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Churchill M, Boessenecker RW, Clementz MT 2014.a Colonization of the Southern Hemisphere by fur seals and sea lions (Carnivora: Otariidae) revealed by combined evidence phylogenetic and Bayesian biogeographic analysis. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 172:200–25
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Churchill M, Clementz MT 2015. Functional implications of variation in tooth spacing and crown size in Pinnipedimorpha (Mammalia: Carnivora). Anat. Rec. 298:878–902
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Churchill M, Clementz MT 2016. The evolution of aquatic feeding in seals: insights from Enaliarctos (Carnivora: Pinnipedimorpha), the oldest known seal. J. Evol. Biol. 29:19–34
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Churchill M, Clementz MT, Kohno N 2014.b Cope's rule and the evolution of body size in Pinnipedimorpha (Mammalia: Carnivora). Evolution 69:201–15
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Churchill M, Clementz MT, Kohno N 2014.c Predictive equations for the estimation of body size in seals and sea lions (Carnivora: Pinnipedia). J. Anat. 225:232–45
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Clementz MT, Holden P, Koch PL 2003.a Are calcium isotopes a reliable monitor of trophic level in marine settings. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 13:29–36
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Clementz MT, Hoppe KA, Koch PL 2003.b A paleoecological paradox: the habitat and dietary preferences of the extinct tethythere Desmostylus, inferred from stable isotope analysis. Paleobiology 29:506–19
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Collareta A, Lambert O, Landini W, Di Celma C, Malinverno E et al. 2017. Did the giant extinct shark Carcharocles megalodon target small prey? Bite marks on marine mammal remains from the late Miocene of Peru. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 469:84–91
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Costa D 1993. The relationship between reproductive and foraging energetics and the evolution of the Pinnipedia. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 66:293–314
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Cozzuol MA 2001. A “northern” seal from the Miocene of Argentina: implications for phocid phylogeny and biogeography. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 21:415–21
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Cullen TM, Fraser D, Rybczynski N, Schröder-Adams C 2014. Early evolution of sexual dimorphism and polygyny in Pinnipedia. Evolution 68:1469–84
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Davis CS, Delisle I, Stirling I, Siniff DB, Strobeck C 2004. A phylogeny of the extant Phocidae inferred from complete mitochondrial DNA coding regions. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 33:363–73
    [Google Scholar]
  53. de Muizon C 1978. Arctocephalus (Hydrarctos) lomasiensis, subgen, nov. et nov. sp., un nouvel Otariidae du Mio-Pliocene de Sacaco (Perou). Bull. Inst. Fr. Etudes Andin. 7:168–88
    [Google Scholar]
  54. de Muizon C 1981. Les Vertébrés Fossiles de la Formation Pisco (Pérou). Part 1. Recherche sur les Grandes Civilisations Mem 6 Paris: Inst. Fr. Etudes Andin
    [Google Scholar]
  55. de Muizon C 1982. Phocid phylogeny and dispersal. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 89:175–213
    [Google Scholar]
  56. de Muizon C, Bond M 1982. Le Phocidae (Mammalia) Miocene de la formation Parańa (Entre Rios, Argentine). Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. Paris 4e Sér. 4:165–207
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Debey LM, Pyenson ND 2012. Osteological correlates and phylogenetic analysis of deep diving in living and extinct pinnipeds: What good are big eyes?. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 29:48–83
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Deméré TA 1994.a The family Odobenidae: a phylogenetic analysis of living and fossil forms. Proc. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 29:99–123
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Deméré TA 1994.b Two new species of fossil walruses (Pinnipedia: Odobenidae) from the Upper Pliocene San Diego Formation, California. Proc. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 29:77–98
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Deméré TA, Berta A 2001. A reevaluation of Proneotherium repenningi from the Miocene Astoria Formation of Oregon and its position as a basal odobenid (Pinnipedia: Mammalia). J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 21:279–310
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Deméré TA, Berta A 2002. The Miocene pinniped Desmatophoca oregonensis Condon, 1906 (Mammalia: Carnivora), from the Astoria Formation, Oregon. See Emry 2002 113–47
  62. Deméré TA, Berta A 2005. New skeletal material of Thalassoleon (Otariidae: Pinnipedia) from the Late Miocene-Early Pliocene (Hemphillian) of California. Bull. Fla. Mus. Nat. Hist. 45:379–411
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Deméré TA, Berta A, Adams P 2003. Pinnipedimorph evolutionary biogeography. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 13:32–76
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Dewaele L, Amson E, Lambert O, Louwye S 2017.a Reappraisal of the extinct seal “Phocavitulinoides from the Neogene of the North Sea Basin, with bearing on its phylogenetic affinities, and locomotion. PeerJ 5:e3316
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Dewaele L, Lambert O, Louwye S 2017.b On Prophoca and Leptophoca (Pinnipedia, Phocidae) from the Miocene of the North Atlantic realm: redescription, phylogenetic affinities and paleobiogeographic implications. PeerJ 5:e3024
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Dort W Jr 1978. The mummified seals of Southern Victorialand, Antarctica. Terrestrial Biology III BC Parker, W Dort Jr. 123–54 Antarct. Res. Ser 30 Washington, DC: Am. Geophys. U
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Dubrovo IA 1981. A new subfamily of fossil seals (Pinnipedia: Kamtschatarctinae subfam. nov.). Proc. Acad. Sci. USSR 256:970–74 In Russian
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Emry RJ 2002. Cenozoic Mammals of Land and Sea: Tributes to the Career of Clayton E. Ray Smithson. Contrib. Paleobiol 93 Washington, DC: Smithson. Inst. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Eizirik E, Murphy WJ, Koepfli KP, Johnson WE, Dragoo JW et al. 2010. Pattern and timing of diversification of the mammalian order Carnivora inferred from multiple nuclear gene sequences. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 56:49–63
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Fahlke JM, Bastl KA, Semprebon GM, Gingerich PD 2013. Paleoecology of archaeocete whales throughout the Eocene: dietary adaptations revealed by microwear analysis. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 386:690–701
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Fay FH 1982. Ecology and biology of the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger. North Am. Fauna 74:1–279
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Ferguson SH, Higdon JW 2006. How seals divide up the world: environment, life-history, and conservation. Oecologia 150:318–29
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Fitzgerald EMG, Hastie D, Buckeridge J, Scofield P 2013. Earliest seals from Australasia reveal colonization of the Southern Ocean by archaic Monachinae (Phocidae). Program and Abstracts, 73rd Meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology127–28 http://vertpaleo.org/Annual-Meeting/Future-Past-Meetings/MeetingPdfs/SVP-2013-merged-book-10-15-2013.aspx
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Fulton TL, Strobeck C 2006. Molecular phylogeny of the Arctoidea (Carnivora): effect of missing data on supertree and supermatrix analyses of multiple gene data sets. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 41:165–81
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Fulton TL, Strobeck C 2010. Multiple markers and multiple individuals refine true seal phylogeny and bring molecules and morphology back in line. Proc. R. Soc. B 277:1065–70
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Giffin EB 1992. Functional implications of neural canal anatomy in recent and fossil marine carnivores. J. Morphol. 214:357–74
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Gingras MK, Armitage IA, Pemberton SG, Clifton HE 2007. Pleistocene walrus herds in the Olympic Peninsula area: trace-fossil evidence of predation by hydraulic jetting. Palaios 22:539–45
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Govender R 2015. Preliminary phylogenetic and biogeographic history of the Pliocene seal, Homiphoca capensis from Langebaanweg, South Africa. Trans. R. Soc. S. Afr. 70:25–39
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Harington CR 1984. Quaternary marine and land mammals and their paleoenvironmental implications—some examples from northern North America. Carnegie Mus. Nat. Hist. Spec. Publ. 8:511–25
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Harington CR 2008. Evolution of Arctic mammals. Ecol. Appl. 18:Suppl. 2S23–40
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Higdon JW, Bininda-Emonds ORP, Beck RMD, Ferguson SH 2007. Phylogeny and divergence of the pinnipeds (Carnivora: Mammalia) assessed using a multigene dataset. BMC Evol. Biol. 7:216
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Hocking DP, Evans AR, Fitzgerald EMG 2013. Leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) use suction and filter feeding when hunting small prey underwater. Polar Biol 36:211–22
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Hocking DP, Marx FG, Park T, Fitzgerald EMG, Evans AR 2017. A behavioural framework for the evolution of feeding in predatory aquatic mammals. Proc. R. Soc. B 284:20162750
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Horikawa H 1995. A primitive odobenine walrus of Early Pliocene age from Japan. Island Arc 3:309–28
    [Google Scholar]
  85. IUCN (Int. U. Conserv. Nat. Nat. Resour.) 2017. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Version 2017-3. http://www.iucnredlist.org. Accessed January 17 2018.
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Jacobs LL, Fiorello AR, Nishida Y, Fitzgerald EMG 2009. Mid-Cenozoic marine mammals from Alaska. Papers on Geology, Vertebrate Paleontology, and Biostratigraphy in Honor of Michael O. Woodburne LB Albright III. Mus. North. Ariz. Bull 65 Flagstaff: Mus. North. Ariz
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Jones KE, Goswami A 2010. Quantitative analysis of the influences of phylogeny and ecology on phocid and otariid pinniped (Mammalia; Carnivora) cranial morphology. J. Zool. 280:297–308This is the first quantitative analysis of the pinniped skull, with implications for feeding and mating.
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Jones KE, Ruff CB, Goswami A 2013. Morphology and biomechanics of the pinniped jaw: mandibular evolution without mastication. Anat. Rec. 296:1049–63
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Kardas S 1965. Notas sobre el genero Odobenus (Mammalia, Pinnipedia). 1. Una nueva suespecie fosil del Pleistoceno superior-Holoceno. Bol. R. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat. Org. Inst. Cienc. Nat. Joseph Acosta Sec. Geol. 63:363–80
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Kellogg R 1922. Pinnipeds from Miocene and Pleistocene Deposits of California Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Kienle SS, Berta A 2016. The better to eat you with: the comparative feeding morphology of phocid seals (Pinnipedia, Phocidae). J. Anat. 228:396–413
    [Google Scholar]
  92. King JE 1983.a Seals of the World Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  93. King JE 1983.b The Ohope skull—a new species of Pleistocene sea lion from New Zealand. N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys. 17:105–20
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Klages NTW, Cockcroft VG 1990. Feeding behavior of a captive crabeater seal. Polar Biol 10:403–4
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Kohno N 1992. A new Pliocene fur seal (Carnivora: Otariidae) from the Senhata Formation of the Boso Peninsula, Japan. Nat. Hist. Res. 2:15–28
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Kohno N 1994. A new Miocene pinniped in the genus Prototaria (Carnivora: Odobenidae) from the Moniwa Formation, Miyagi, Japan. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 14:414–26
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Kohno N 1996. Miocene pinniped Allodesmus (Mammalia: Carnivora); with special reference to the “Mito seal” from Ibaraki Prefecture, Central Japan. Trans. Proc. Paleontol. Soc. Jpn. 181:388–404
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Kohno N 2006. A new Miocene odobenid (Mammalia: Carnivora) from Hokkaido, Japan, and its implications for odobenid phylogeny. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 26:411–21
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Kohno N, Barnes LG, Hirota K 1995.a Miocene fossil pinnipeds of the genera Prototaria and Neotherium (Carnivora; Otariidae; Imagotariinae) in the North Pacific Ocean: evolution, relationships and distribution. Island Arc 3:285–308
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Kohno N, Narita K, Koike H 1998. An early Pliocene odobenid (Mammalia: Carnivora) from the Joshita formation, Nagano Prefecture, central Japan. Res. Rep. Shinshushinmachi Foss. Mus. 1:285–308
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Kohno N, Ray CE 2008. Pliocene walruses from the Yorktown Formation of Virginia and North Carolina, and a systematic revision of the North Atlantic Pliocene walruses. Va. Mus. Nat. Hist. Spec. Publ. 14:39–80
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Kohno N, Tomida Y, Hasegawa Y, Furusawa H 1995.b Pliocene tusked odobenids (Mammalia: Carnivora) in the Western North Pacific, and their paleobiogeography. Bull. Natl. Sci. Mus. Tokyo 21:111–31
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Kohno N, Yanagisawa Y 1997. The first record of the Pliocene Gilmore fur seal in the western North Pacific Ocean. Bull. Natl. Sci. Mus. Tokyo 23:119–30
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Koretsky IA 2001. Morphology and Systematics of Miocene Phocinae (Mammalia: Carnivora) from Paratethys and the North Atlantic Region Budapest: Geol. Inst. Hung
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Koretsky IA, Domning D 2014. One of the oldest seals (Carnivora, Phocidae) from the Old World. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 34:224–29
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Koretsky IA, Grigorescu D 2002. The fossil monk seal Pontophoca sarmatica (Alekseev) (Mammalia: Phocidae: Monachinae) from the Miocene of eastern Europe. See Emry 2002 149–62
  107. Koretsky IA, Holec P 2002. A primitive seal (Mammalia: Phocidae) from the early middle Miocene of central Paratethys. See Emry 2002.163–78
  108. Koretsky IA, Rahmat S 2013. First record of fossil Cystophorinae (Carnivora, Phocidae): middle Miocene seals from the northern Paratethys. Riv. Ital. Paleontol. Stratigr. 119:325–50
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Koretsky IA, Rahmat S 2015. A new species of the subfamily Devinophocinae (Carnivora, Phocidae) from the Central Paratethys. Riv. Ital. Paleontol. Stratigr. 121:31–47
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Koretsky IA, Rahmat S, Peters N 2014. Rare late Miocene seal taxa (Carnivora, Phocidae) from the North Sea basin. Vestnik Zool 48:419–32
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Koretsky IA, Ray CE, Peters N 2012. A new species of Leptophoca (Carnivora, Phocidae, Phocinae) from both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean (Miocene seals of the Netherlands, part I). Deinsea 15:1–2
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Koretsky IA, Sanders A 2002. Paleontology of the Late Oligocene Ashley and Chandler Bridge formations in South Carolina. I. Paleogene pinniped remains; the oldest known seal (Carnivora: Phocidae). See Emry 2002 179–83
  113. Lindenfors P, Tullberg BS, Biuw M 2002. Phylogenetic analyses of sexual selection and sexual size dimorphism in pinnipeds. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 52:188–95
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Loch S, Boessenecker RW, Churchill M, Kieser J 2016. Enamel ultrastructure of fossil and modern pinnipeds: evaluating hypotheses of feeding adaptations in the extinct walrus Pelagiarctos. . Sci. Nat. 103:44–51
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Luan PT, Ryder OA, Davis H, Zhang YP, Yu L 2013. Incorporating indels as phylogenetic characters: impact for interfamilial relationships within Arctoidea (Mammalia: Carnivora). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 66:748–56
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Marshall CD, Rosen DA, Trites AW 2015. Feeding kinematics and performance of basal otariid pinnipeds, Steller sea lions and northern fur seals: implications for the evolution of mammalian feeding. J. Exp. Biol. 218:3229–40
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Marshall CD, Wieskotten S, Hanke W, Hanke FD, Marsh A et al. 2014. Feeding kinematics, suction, and hydraulic jetting performance of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). PLOS ONE 9:e86710
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Miller WE 1971. Pleistocene vertebrates of the Los Angeles Basin and vicinity (exclusive of Rancho La Brea) Bull 10 Mus. Nat. Hist. Los Angeles Cty Los Angeles, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Mirceta S, Signore AV, Burns JM, Cossins AR, Campbell KL, Berenbrink M 2013. Evolution of mammalian diving capacity traced by myoglobin net surface charge. Science 340:1303
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Mitchell ED 1961. A New Walrus from the Imperial Pliocene of Southern California: With Notes on Odobenid and Otariid Humeri Contrib. Sci 44 Mus. Nat. Hist. Los Angeles Cty Los Angeles, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Mitchell ED 1966. The Miocene Pinniped Allodesmus Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Mitchell ED, Tedford RH 1973. The Enaliarctinae: a new group of extinct aquatic Carnivora and a consideration of the origin of the Otariidae. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 151:201–84This classic paper describes the skull anatomy of the earliest reported fossil pinniped, Enaliarctos.
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Miyazaki S, Horikawa H, Kohno N, Hirota K, Kimura M et al. 1995. Summary of the fossil record of pinnipeds of Japan, and comparisons with that from the eastern North Pacific. Island Arc 3:361–72
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Miyazaki S, Kimura M, Ishiguri H 1992. On a Pliocene walrus (Odobenus sp.) discovered in the Northern Pacific Ocean. J. Geol. Soc. Jpn. 98:723–40
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Newsome SD, Clementz MT, Koch PL 2010. Using stable isotope biogeochemistry to study marine mammal ecology. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 26:509–72
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Nyakatura K, Bininda-Emonds ORP 2012. Updating the evolutionary history of Carnivora (Mammalia): a new species-level supertree complete with divergence time estimates. BMC Biol 10:12
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Orlov JA 1933. Semantor macrurus (Ordo Pinnipedia, Fam. Semantoridae fam. nova) aus den Neogen-Ablagerungen Westsibiriens. Trudy Paleont. Inst. Akad. Nauk SSSR 2:165–262
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Perez LM, Genta Iturreria SF, Griffin M 2010. Paleoecological and paleobiogeographic significance of two species of bivalves in the Parana Formation (late Miocene) of Entre Rios province, Argentina. Malacologia 53:61–76
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Pierce SE, Clack JA, Hutchinson JR 2011. Comparative axial morphology in pinnipeds and its correlation with aquatic locomotory behavior. J. Anat. 219:502–14
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Poust AW, Boessenecker RW 2017. Mandibles of the sea lion Proterozetes ulysses from the Middle Pleistocene Port Orford Formation of Oregon. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 37:e1317637
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Poust AW, Boessenecker RW 2018. Expanding the geographic and geochronologic range of early pinnipeds: new specimens of Enaliarctos from Northern California and Oregon. Acta Palaeontol. Pol. 63:25–40
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Pyenson ND, Irmis JH, Lipps JH, Barnes LG, Mitchell ED, McLeod SA 2009. The origin of a widespread marine bonebed deposited during the middle Miocene Climatic Optimum. Geology 37:519–22
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Ray CE 1976. Phoca wymani and Other Tertiary Seals (Mammalia: Phocidae) Described from the Eastern Seaboard of North America Smithson. Contrib. Paleobiol. 28 Washington, DC: Smithson. Inst. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Repenning CA, Ray CE, Grigorescu D 1979. Pinniped biogeography. Historical Biogeography, Plate Tectonics, and the Changing Environment J Gray, AJ Boucot 357–69 Corvallis: Or. State Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Repenning CA, Tedford RH 1977. Otarioid seals of the Neogene Prof. Pap 992: US Geol. Surv Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Rybczynski N, Dawson MR, Tedford RH 2009. A semi-aquatic Arctic mammalian carnivore from the Miocene epoch and origin of Pinnipedia. Nature 458:1021–24
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Sanders AE 2002. Additions to the Pleistocene Mammal Faunas of South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia Trans. Am. Philos. Soc 92 Philadelphia: Am. Philos. Soc
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Savage RJG 1957. The anatomy of Potamotherium an Oligocene lutrine. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 129:151–244
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Scheel DM, Slater GJ, Kolokotronis SO, Potter CW, Rotstein DS et al. 2014. Biogeography and taxonomy of extinct and endangered monk seals illuminated by ancient DNA and skull morphology. ZooKeys 409:1–33
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Serran M, Centeno N, Weiler N, Gomez-Otero J 2008. Massive death of pinnipeds 1200 years ago: taphonomic history of the “Lobos site” (Golfo Nuevo, Patagonia, Argentina). Quat. Int. 183:135–42
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Tanaka Y, Kohno N 2015. A new late Miocene odobenid (Mammalia: Carnivora) from Hokkaido, Japan suggests rapid diversification of basal Miocene odobenids. PLOS ONE 10:e0131856
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Tedford RH 1976. Relationships of pinnipeds to other carnivores (Mammalia). Syst. Zool. 25:363–74
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Tedford RH, Barnes LG, Ray CE 1994. The early Miocene littoral ursoid carnivoran Kolponomos: systematics and mode of life. Proc. San Diego Mus. Nat. Hist. 29:11–32
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Tomida Y 1989. A new walrus (Carnivora, Odobenidae) from the Middle Pleistocene of the Boso Peninsula, Japan, and its implication on odobenid paleobiogeography. Bull. Natl. Sci. Mus. Tokyo 15:109–19
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Tseng ZJ, Grohé C, Flynn JJ 2016. A unique feeding strategy of the extinct marine mammal Kolponomos: convergence on sabretooths and sea otters. Proc. R. Soc. B 283:20160044
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Valenzuela-Toro AM, Gutstein CS, Suarez ME, Pyenson ND 2015. Elephant seal (Mirounga sp.) from the Pleistocene of the Antofagasta Region, northern Chile. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 35:e918883
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Valenzuela-Toro AM, Gutstein CS, Varas-Malca RM, Suarez ME, Pyenson ND 2013. Pinniped turnover in the South Pacific Ocean: new evidence from the Plio-Pleistocene of the Atacama Desert, Chile. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 33:216–23
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Van Valkenburgh B, Curtis A, Samuels JS, Bird D, Fulkerson B et al. 2011. Aquatic adaptations in the nose of carnivorans: evidence from the turbinates. J. Anat. 218:298–310
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Velez-Juarbe J 2017. Eotaria citrica, sp. nov., a new stem otariid from the “Topanga” formation of Southern California. PeerJ 5:e3022
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Walsh S, Naish D 2002. Fossil seals from late Neogene deposits in South America: a new pinniped (Carnivora, Mammalia) assemblage form Chile. Palaeontology 45:821–42
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Wang X, McKenna MC, Dashzeveg D 2005. Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon (Actoidea, Carnivora) from Hsanda Gol Formation, central Mongolia and phylogeny of basal arctoids with comments on zoogeography. Am. Mus. Novit. 3483:1–57
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Wings O 2007. A review of gastrolith function with implications for fossil vertebrates and a revised classification. Acta Palaeontol. Pol. 52:1–16
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Wolsan M 1993. Phylogeny and classification of early European Mustelida (Mammalia: Carnivora). Acta Theriol 38:345–84
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Wyss AR 1987. The walrus auditory region and monophyly of pinnipeds. Am. Mus. Novit. 2871:1–31Wyss’ seminal work is the first paper to propose pinniped monophyly based on morphology.
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Wyss AR 1988. On “retrogression” in the evolution of the Phocinae and phylogenetic affinities of the monk seals. Am. Mus. Novit. 2924:1–38
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Wyss AR 1994. The evolution of body size in phocids: some ontogenetic and phylogenetic observations. Proc. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 29:69–75
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Wyss AR, Flynn J 1993. A phylogenetic analysis and definition of the Carnivora. Mammal Phylogeny: Placentals FS Szalay, MJ Novacek, MC McKenna 32–52 New York: Springer-Verlag
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Yonezawa T, Kohno N, Hasegawa M 2009. The monophyletic origin of sea lions and fur seals (Carnivora: Otariidae) in the Southern Hemisphere. Gene 441:89–99
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010009
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010009
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplementary Data

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error