1932

Abstract

Corruption significantly affects the large majority of countries, and it has negative social and economic impacts. Its impacts on environmental and resource management (ERM) sectors are less well understood. We review corruption in the extractive industries, irrigation, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and conservation activities with a focus on the management of protected areas and the wildlife trade. There is significant evidence that corruption in ERM sectors is systemic. Corruption in these sectors has significant negative environmental and economic impacts, which can be expected to result in negative social impacts. Many of the anti-corruption policies proposed for the ERM sectors draw on the principal-agent theory. The political science literature on corruption found that theory to have limited application when corruption is systemic and the principal is corrupt. The analysis of corruption and anti-corruption in countries with systemic corruption should draw to a greater extent on collective action theory to identify more effective policies. We highlight some anti-corruption policies relevant to ERM sectors.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083949
2020-10-17
2024-12-08
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/energy/45/1/annurev-environ-012320-083949.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083949&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. 
    United Nations 2018. Global cost of corruption at least 5 per cent of world gross domestic product, Secretary-General tells Security Council, citing World Economic Forum data Press Release SC/13493, Sept. 10. http://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13493.doc.htm
    [Google Scholar]
  2. 2. 
    Gaspar V, Hagan S. 2016. Corruption: costs and mitigation strategies Staff Note SDN16/05, Fisc. Aff. Dep., Legal Dep., Int. Monet. Fund Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  3. 3. 
    Kaufmann D 2005. Myths and realities of governance and corruption. Global Competitiveness Report 20052006 ME Lopez-Claros, A Schwab, K Porter 81–98 London: Palgrave Macmillan
    [Google Scholar]
  4. 4. 
    Gupta S, Davoodi H, Alonso-Terme R. 1998. Does Corruption Affect Income Inequality and Poverty? Washington, DC: Int. Monet. Fund
    [Google Scholar]
  5. 5. 
    Justesen MK, Bjørnskov C. 2014. Exploiting the poor: bureaucratic corruption and poverty in Africa. World Dev 58:106–15
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6. 
    Holmberg S, Rothstein B. 2011. Dying of corruption. Health Econ. Policy Law 6:4529–47
    [Google Scholar]
  7. 7. 
    Kolstad I, Søreide T. 2009. Corruption in natural resource management: implications for policy makers. Resour. Policy 34:4214–26
    [Google Scholar]
  8. 8. 
    Ferraro P 2005. Corruption and conservation: the need for empirical analyses. A response to Smith & Walpole. Oryx 39:3257–59
    [Google Scholar]
  9. 9. 
    Smith RJ, Walpole MJ. 2005. Should conservationists pay more attention to corruption. Oryx 39:3251–56
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 10. 
    Morse S 2006. Is corruption bad for environmental sustainability? A cross-national analysis. Ecol. Soc. 11:122
    [Google Scholar]
  11. 11. 
    Smith RJ, Ewers RM. 2007. Choice of index determines the relationship between corruption and environmental sustainability. Response to Morse. 2006. “Is Corruption Bad for Environmental Sustainability? A Cross-National Analysis. .” Ecol. Soc. 12:1r2
    [Google Scholar]
  12. 12. 
    Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 2007. Corruption: A Glossary of International Criminal Standards Paris: OECD
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 13. 
    Lambsdorff JG 2007. The Institutional Economics of Corruption and Reform: Theory, Evidence and Policy Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14. 
    Mungiu-Pippidi A 2015. The Quest for Good Governance: How Societies Develop Control of Corruption Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15. 
    Rotberg RI 2018. Accomplishing anticorruption: propositions & methods. Daedalus 147:35–18
    [Google Scholar]
  16. 16. 
    Klittgaard R 1988. Controlling Corruption Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  17. 17. 
    Shleifer A, Vishny M. 1993. Corruption. Q. J. Econ. 108:3599–617
    [Google Scholar]
  18. 18. 
    Ades A, Di Tella R. 1999. Rents, competition, and corruption. Am. Econ. Rev. 89:4982–93
    [Google Scholar]
  19. 19. 
    Rose-Ackerman S 1999. Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 20. 
    Fjeldstad OH, Isaksen J. 2008. Anti-Corruption Reforms: Challenges, Effects and Limits of World Bank Support Washington, DC: The World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. 
    Bardhan P 1997. Corruption and development: a review of issues. J. Econ. Lit. 35:31320–46
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22. 
    Johnston M 2005. Syndromes of Corruption: Wealth, Power and Democracy Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23. 
    Rothstein B 2011. Anti-corruption: the indirect “big bang” approach. Rev. Int. Polit. Econ. 18:2228–50
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24. 
    Johnston M 2014. Corruption, Contention, and Reform: The Power of Deep Democratization Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  25. 25. 
    Rothstein B, Tannenberg M. 2017. Making development work—the quality of government approach SSRN Work. Pap 3023883 https://ssrn.com/abstract=3023883
    [Google Scholar]
  26. 26. 
    Persson A, Rothstein B, Teorell J. 2013. Why anticorruption reforms fail—systemic corruption as a collective action problem. Governance 26:3449–71
    [Google Scholar]
  27. 27. 
    Marquette H, Peiffer C. 2017. Grappling with the “real politics” of systemic corruption: theoretical debates versus “real-world” functions. Governance 31:499–514
    [Google Scholar]
  28. 28. 
    Persson A, Rothstein B, Teorell J. 2019. Getting the basic nature of systemic corruption right: A reply to Marquette and Peiffer. Governance 32:4799–810
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29. 
    Marquette H, Peiffer C. 2019. Thinking politically about corruption as problem-solving: A reply to Persson, Rothstein, and Teorell. Governance 32:4811–820
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30. 
    Mungiu-Pippidi A 2017. The time has come for evidence-based anticorruption. Nat. Hum. Behav. 1:10011
    [Google Scholar]
  31. 31. 
    Heywood PM 2018. Combating corruption in the twenty-first century: new approaches. Daedalus 147:383–97
    [Google Scholar]
  32. 32. 
    Heeks R, Mathisen H. 2012. Understanding success and failure of anti-corruption initiatives. Crime, Law Soc. Change 58:5533–49
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33. 
    Huther J, Shah A. 2000. Anti-Corruption Policies and Programs: A Framework for Evaluation Washington, DC: The World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  34. 34. 
    Vadlamannati KC, Cooray A. 2017. Transparency pays? Evaluating the effects of the freedom of information laws on perceived government corruption. J. Dev. Stud. 53:1116–37
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35. 
    Johnsøn J 2016. Anti-Corruption Strategies in Fragile States: Theory and Practice in Aid Agencies Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar
    [Google Scholar]
  36. 36. 
    Rothstein B 2018. Fighting systemic corruption: the indirect strategy. Daedalus 147:335–49
    [Google Scholar]
  37. 37. 
    The World Bank 2012. Fighting Corruption in Public Services: Chronicling Georgia's Reforms Washington, DC: The World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  38. 38. 
    Baunsgaard T, Villafuerte M, Poplawski-Ribeiro M, Richmond C. 2012. Fiscal Frameworks for Resource Rich Developing Countries Washington, DC: Int. Monet. Fund
    [Google Scholar]
  39. 39. 
    Bhattacharyya S, Hodler R. 2010. Natural resources, democracy and corruption. Eur. Econ. Rev. 54:4608–21
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 40. 
    Arezki R, Gylfason T. 2013. Resource rents, democracy, corruption and conflict: evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. J. Afr. Econ. 22:4552–69
    [Google Scholar]
  41. 41. 
    Petermann A, Guzman JI, Tilton JE. 2007. Mining and corruption. Resour. Policy 32:91–103
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42. 
    Padmore R 2018. Nigeria could lose $6bn from “corrupt” oil deal linked to fraud. BBC News Nov. 26. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-46336733
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43. 
    Global Witness 2018. Take the future: Shell's scandalous deal for Nigeria's oil Rep. Glob. Witness Washington, DC: Nov. 26. https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/oil-gas-and-mining/take-the-future/
    [Google Scholar]
  44. 44. 
    Kharas H, Hamel K, Hofer M 2018. The start of a new poverty narrative. Brookings, June 19. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2018/06/19/the-start-of-a-new-poverty-narrative/
    [Google Scholar]
  45. 45. 
    Caripis L 2017. Combatting Corruption in Mining Approvals: Assessing the Risk in 18 Resource Rich Countries Berlin: Transpar. Int.
    [Google Scholar]
  46. 46. 
    Wade R 1982. The system of administrative and political corruption: canal irrigation in South India. J. Dev. Stud. 18:3287–328
    [Google Scholar]
  47. 47. 
    Wade R 1985. The market for public office: why the Indian state is not better at development. World Dev 13:4467–97
    [Google Scholar]
  48. 48. 
    Repetto R 1986. Skimming the Water: Rent-Seeking and the Performance of Public Irrigation Systems Washington, DC: World Resour. Inst.
    [Google Scholar]
  49. 49. 
    Huppert W 2013. Viewpoint—Rent-seeking in agricultural water management: an intentionally neglected core dimension. Water Altern 6:2265–75
    [Google Scholar]
  50. 50. 
    Punjabi B 2017. Canal bureaucracy and the corruption nexus around water in the Mumbai hinterland: questions for development and governance in Maharashtra, India. India Rev 16:2179–211
    [Google Scholar]
  51. 51. 
    Suhardiman D, Mollinga PP. 2017. Institutionalized corruption in Indonesian irrigation: an analysis of the upeti system. Dev. Policy Rev. 35:S2140–59
    [Google Scholar]
  52. 52. 
    Gupta MR, Chaudhuri S. 1997. Formal credit, corruption and the informal credit market in agriculture: a theoretical analysis. Economica 64:254331–43
    [Google Scholar]
  53. 53. 
    Ekbom A, Knutsson P, Ovuka M. 2001. Is sustainable development based on agriculture attainable in Kenya? A multidisciplinary case study of Murang'a district. Land Degrad. Dev. 12:5435–47
    [Google Scholar]
  54. 54. 
    Benjaminsen TA, Maganga FP, Abdallah JM. 2009. The Kilosa killings: political ecology of a farmer-herder conflict in Tanzania. Dev. Change 40:3423–45
    [Google Scholar]
  55. 55. 
    Tambulasi RIC 2009. The public sector corruption and organised crime nexus: the case of the fertiliser subsidy programme in Malawi. Afr. Secur. Rev. 18:419–31
    [Google Scholar]
  56. 56. 
    Baudoin MA, Sanchez AC, Fandohan B. 2014. Small scale farmers’ vulnerability to climatic changes in southern Benin: the importance of farmers’ perceptions of existing institutions. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang. 19:81195–207
    [Google Scholar]
  57. 57. 
    Gylfason T 2000. Resources, agriculture, and economic growth. Kyklos 53:545–79
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58. 
    Robbins WG 1985. The social context of forestry: the Pacific Northwest in the twentieth century. West. Hist. Q. 16:4413–27
    [Google Scholar]
  59. 59. 
    Peluso NL, Poffenberger M. 1989. Social forestry in Java: reorienting management systems. Hum. Organ. 48:4333–44
    [Google Scholar]
  60. 60. 
    Marshall G 1990. The political economy of logging: the Barnett Inquiry into corruption in the Papua New Guinea timber industry. Ecologist 20:5174–81
    [Google Scholar]
  61. 61. 
    Callister DJ 1999. Corrupt and Illegal Activities in the Forestry Sector: Current Understandings, and Implications for World Bank Forest Policy Washington, DC: The World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  62. 62. 
    Tacconi L 2007. Illegal Logging: Law Enforcement, Livelihoods and the Timber Trade London: Earthscan
    [Google Scholar]
  63. 63. 
    Hoare A 2015. Tackling Illegal Logging and the Related Trade London: Chatham House
    [Google Scholar]
  64. 64. 
    Smith RJ, Muir RDJ, Walpole MJ, Balmford A, Leader-Williams N. 2003. Governance and the loss of biodiversity. Nature 426:696267–70
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65. 
    Barrett CB, Gibson CC, Hoffman B, McCubbins MD. 2006. The complex links between governance and biodiversity. Conserv. Biol. 20:51358–66
    [Google Scholar]
  66. 66. 
    Barbier EB, Damania R, Léonard D. 2005. Corruption, trade and resource conversion. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 50:2276–99
    [Google Scholar]
  67. 67. 
    Bulte EH, Damania R. 2007. On the gains of committing to inefficiency: corruption, deforestation and low land productivity in Latin America. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 54:277–95
    [Google Scholar]
  68. 68. 
    Meehan F, Tacconi L. 2017. A framework to assess the impacts of corruption on forests and prioritize responses. Land Use Policy 60:113–22
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69. 
    Amacher GS, Ollikainen M, Koskela E. 2012. Corruption and forest concessions. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 63:192–104
    [Google Scholar]
  70. 70. 
    Goncalves MP, Panjer M, Greenberg TS, Magrath WB. 2012. Justice for Forests: Improving Criminal Justice Efforts to Combat Illegal Logging Washington, DC: The World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  71. 71. 
    Barr C, Dermawan A, Purnomo H, Komarudin H. 2010. Financial Governance and Indonesia's Reforestation Fund during the Soeharto and Post-Soeharto Periods, 19892009: A Political Economic Analysis of Lessons for REDD+ Bogor, Indones.: Cent. Int. For. Res.
    [Google Scholar]
  72. 72. 
    Robbins P 2000. The rotten institution: corruption in natural resource management. Polit. Geogr. 19:4423–43
    [Google Scholar]
  73. 73. 
    Siebert U, Elwert G. 2004. Combating corruption and illegal logging in Bénin, West Africa. J. Sustain. For. 19:1–3239–61
    [Google Scholar]
  74. 74. 
    Cerutti PO, Tacconi L, Lescuyer G, Nasi R. 2013. Cameroon's hidden harvest: commercial chainsaw logging, corruption, and livelihoods. Soc. Nat. Resour. 26:5539–53
    [Google Scholar]
  75. 75. 
    Smith J, Obidzinski K, Subarudi, Suramenggala I. 2003. Illegal logging, collusive corruption and fragmented governments in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Int. For. Rev. 5:3293–302
    [Google Scholar]
  76. 76. 
    Wells A, del Gatto F, Richards M, Pommier D, Contreras-Hermosilla A. 2007. Rural livelihoods, forest law and illegal timber trade in Honduras and Nicaragua. Illegal Logging: Law Enforcement, Livelihoods and the Timber Trade L Tacconi 139–66 London: Earthscan
    [Google Scholar]
  77. 77. 
    Costello C, Ovando D. 2019. Status, institutions, and prospects for global capture fisheries. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 44:1177–200
    [Google Scholar]
  78. 78. 
    Agnew DJ, Pearce J, Pramod G, Peatman T, Watson R et al. 2009. Estimating the worldwide extent of illegal fishing. PLOS ONE 4:2e4570
    [Google Scholar]
  79. 79. 
    Cisneros-Montemayor M, Cisneros-Mata MA, Harper S, Pauly D. 2013. Extent and implications of IUU catch in Mexico's marine fisheries. Mar. Policy 39:283–88
    [Google Scholar]
  80. 80. 
    Hanich Q, Tsamenyi M. 2009. Managing fisheries and corruption in the Pacific Islands region. Mar. Policy 33:2386–92
    [Google Scholar]
  81. 81. 
    Standing A 2015. Mirage of pirates: state-corporate crime in West Africa's fisheries. State Crime J 4:2175–97
    [Google Scholar]
  82. 82. 
    Sundström A 2015. Covenants with broken swords: corruption and law enforcement in governance of the commons. Glob. Environ. Change 31:253–62
    [Google Scholar]
  83. 83. 
    Nunan F, Cepić D, Yongo E, Salehe M, Mbilingi B et al. 2018. Compliance, corruption and co-management: how corruption fuels illegalities and undermines the legitimacy of fisheries co-management. Int. J. Commons 12:258–79
    [Google Scholar]
  84. 84. 
    Etiegni CA, Irvine K, Kooy M. 2017. Playing by whose rules? Community norms and fisheries rules in selected beaches within Lake Victoria (Kenya) co-management. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 19:41557–75
    [Google Scholar]
  85. 85. 
    Silvestre BS, Monteiro MS, Viana FLE, de Sousa-Filho JM. 2018. Challenges for sustainable supply chain management: when stakeholder collaboration becomes conducive to corruption. J. Clean. Prod. 194:766–76
    [Google Scholar]
  86. 86. 
    Chaudhary A, Pfister S, Hellweg S. 2016. Spatially explicit analysis of biodiversity loss due to global agriculture, pasture and forest land use from a producer and consumer perspective. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50:73928–36
    [Google Scholar]
  87. 87. 
    UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UN Environment Programme (UNEP) 2009. Report of the FAO/UNEP Expert Meeting on Impacts of Destructive Fishing Practices, Unsustainable Fishing, and Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing on Marine Biodiversity and Habitats FAO Fish. Aquac. Rep. 932 Rome, New York: FAO, UNEP http://www.fao.org/3/i1490e/i1490e00.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  88. 88. 
    Venter O, Sanderson EW, Magrach A, Allan JR, Beher J et al. 2016. Sixteen years of change in the global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation. Nat. Commun. 7:12558
    [Google Scholar]
  89. 89. 
    UN Environ. Progr.-World Conserv. Monit. Cent. (UNEP-WCMC), Int. Union Conserv. Nature (IUCN) 2016. Protected Planet Report 2016: How Protected Areas Contribute to Achieving Global Targets for Biodiversity Cambridge, UK; Gland, Switz: UNEP-WCMC, IUCN https://wdpa.s3.amazonaws.com/Protected_Planet_Reports/2445%20Global%20Protected%20Planet%202016_WEB.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  90. 90. 
    Gray CL, Hill SLL, Newbold T, Hudson LN, Boïrger L et al. 2016. Local biodiversity is higher inside than outside terrestrial protected areas worldwide. Nat. Commun. 7:112306
    [Google Scholar]
  91. 91. 
    Schulze K, Knights K, Coad L, Geldmann J, Leverington F et al. 2018. An assessment of threats to terrestrial protected areas. Conserv. Lett. 11:3e12435
    [Google Scholar]
  92. 92. 
    Abman R 2017. Rule of law and avoided deforestation from protected areas. Ecol. Econ. 146:282–89
    [Google Scholar]
  93. 93. 
    Eklund J, Arponen A, Visconti P, Cabeza M. 2011. Governance factors in the identification of global conservation priorities for mammals. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 366:2661–69
    [Google Scholar]
  94. 94. 
    Chase MJ, Schlossberg S, Griffin CR, Bouché PJC, Djene SW et al. 2016. Continent-wide survey reveals massive decline in African savannah elephants. PeerJ 4:e2354
    [Google Scholar]
  95. 95. 
    Hauenstein S, Kshatriya M, Blanc J, Dormann CF, Beale CM. 2019. African elephant poaching rates correlate with local poverty, national corruption and global ivory price. Nat. Commun. 10:2242
    [Google Scholar]
  96. 96. 
    van Uhm DP, Moreto WD. 2018. Corruption within the illegal wildlife trade: a symbiotic and antithetical enterprise. Br. J. Criminol. 58:864–85
    [Google Scholar]
  97. 97. 
    Robbins P, McSweeney K, Chhangani AK, Rice J. 2009. Conservation as it is: illicit resource use in a wildlife reserve in India. Hum. Ecol. 37:559–75
    [Google Scholar]
  98. 98. 
    Yarrington D 2003. Cattle, corruption, and Venezuelan state formation during the regime of Juan Vicente Gómez. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 38:29–33
    [Google Scholar]
  99. 99. 
    Kolstad I, Wiig A. 2009. Is transparency the key to reducing corruption in resource-rich countries. World Dev 37:3521–32
    [Google Scholar]
  100. 100. 
    Öge K 2016. Which transparency matters? Compliance with anti-corruption efforts in extractive industries. Resour. Policy 49:41–50
    [Google Scholar]
  101. 101. 
    Papyrakis E, Rieger M, Gilberthorpe E 2017. Corruption and the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. J. Dev. Stud 53:2295–309
    [Google Scholar]
  102. 102. 
    Standing A 2008. Corruption and Industrial Fishing in Africa Bergen, Norway: U4 Anti-Corrupt. Res. Centre, Chr. Michelsen Inst https://www.u4.no/publications/corruption-and-industrial-fishing-in-africa/
    [Google Scholar]
  103. 103. 
    Cross H 2016. Displacement, disempowerment and corruption: challenges at the interface of fisheries, management and conservation in the Bijagós Archipelago, Guinea-Bissau. Oryx 50:4693–701
    [Google Scholar]
  104. 104. 
    Campos E, Pradhan S 2007. The Many Faces of Corruption Washington, DC: The World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  105. 105. 
    Kishor N, Damania R 2007. Crime and justice in the garden of Eden: improving governance and reducing corruption in the forestry sector. The Many Faces of Corruption E Campos, S Pradhan 89–114 Washington, DC: The World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  106. 106. 
    Rosenbaum KL 2005. Tools for Civil Society Action to Reduce Forest Corruption: Drawing Lessons from Transparency International Washington, DC: The World Bank
    [Google Scholar]
  107. 107. 
    Smith RJ, Biggs D, St. John FAV, ’t Sas-Rolfes M, Barrington R 2015. Elephant conservation and corruption beyond the ivory trade. Conserv. Biol 29:3953–56
    [Google Scholar]
  108. 108. 
    Walpole MJ, Smith RJ 2005. Focusing on corruption: a reply to Ferraro and Katzner. Oryx 39:3263–64
    [Google Scholar]
  109. 109. 
    Repetto R, Gillis M 1988. Public Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  110. 110. 
    Karsenty A 2010. Forest taxation regime for tropical forests: lessons from Central Africa. Int. For. Rev. 12:2121–29
    [Google Scholar]
  111. 111. 
    Bulkan J, Palmer J 2008. Breaking the rings of forest corruption: steps towards better forest governance. For. Trees Livelihoods 18:103–31
    [Google Scholar]
  112. 112. 
    Azmat F, Coghill K 2005. Good governance and market-based reforms: a study of Bangladesh. Int. Rev. Adm. Sci 71:4625–38
    [Google Scholar]
  113. 113. 
    Leader‐Williams N, Baldus RD, Smith RJ 2009. The influence of corruption on the conduct of recreational hunting. Recreational Hunting, Conservation and Rural Livelihoods: Science and Practice296–313 Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell
    [Google Scholar]
  114. 114. 
    Plummer J 2007. Making Anti-corruption Approaches Work for the Poor: Issues for Consideration in the Development of Pro-poor Anti-corruption Strategies in Water Services and Irrigation Stockholm: Swed. Water House https://www.waterintegritynetwork.net/2007/03/05/making-anti-corruption-approaches-work-for-the-poor/
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083949
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083949
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error