1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Law and Social Science
  4. Volume 19, 2023
  5. Article

Annual Review of Law and Social Science

Volume 19, 2023

Cultivating Equal Minds: Laws and Policies as (De)biasing Social Interventions

Abstract

To address issues of bias and discrimination in many areas of social life, scientists have developed a variety of strategies to debias people's minds and reduce discrimination and the disparities that stem from it. A large body of research has documented, however, that debias trainings have short-lived effects on changing patterns of thinking (i.e., they last less than 24 hours) and minimal effects on behaviors. In this article, I argue that such limited effects of one-time trainings are to be expected, given the segregated and stratified social structure we live in that was created by historic and contemporary laws and policies. After explaining the mechanisms through which laws and policies create biased people, I then explain how laws and policies can instead be used as levers to create long-lasting changes in biases.

Keyword(s): implicit bias, intergroup relations, psychology and law, segregation, social cognition
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-111622-063213
2023-10-05
2024-05-05
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/lawsocsci/19/1/annurev-lawsocsci-111622-063213.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-111622-063213&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Albarracin D, Shavitt S. 2018. Attitudes and attitude change. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 69:299–327
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Anderson E 2015. “The white space.”. Sociol. Race Ethn. 1:110–21
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Anicich E, Jachimowicz J, Osborne M, Taylor Phillips L 2021. Structuring local environments to avoid racial diversity: Anxiety drives Whites’ geographical and institutional self-segregation preferences. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 95:104117
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Baron AS, Banaji MR. 2006. The development of implicit attitudes. Evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychol. Sci. 17:153–58
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Baumeister RF, Vohs KD, Funder DC. 2007. Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger movements: Whatever happened to actual behavior?. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2:4396–403
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Bertrand M, Mullainathan S. 2003. Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination. Am. Econ. Rev. 94:4991–1013
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Blanton H, Jaccard J, Klick J, Mellers B, Mitchell G, Tetlock PE. 2009. Strong claims and weak evidence: reassessing the predictive validity of the IAT. J. Appl. Psychol. 94:3567–92
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bouchey HA, Harter S. 2005. Reflected appraisals, academic self-perceptions, and math/science performance during early adolescence. J. Educ. Psychol. 97:4673–86
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483; 1954.)
  10. Bryan CJ, Tipton E, Yeager DS. 2021. Behavioural science is unlikely to change the world without a heterogeneity revolution. Nat. Hum. Behav. 5:8980–89
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Card D, Giuliano L. 2016. Universal screening increases the representation of low-income and minority students in gifted education. PNAS 113:4813678–83
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Carter ER, Onyeador IN, Lewis NA Jr. 2020. Developing & delivering effective anti-bias training: challenges & recommendations. Behav. Sci. Policy 6:157–70
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Chang EH, Milkman KL, Gromet DM, Rebele RW, Massey C et al. 2019. The mixed effects of online diversity training. PNAS 116:167778–83
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Cialdini RB, Goldstein NJ. 2004. Social influence: compliance and conformity. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 55:591–621
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Cikara M, Martinez J, Lewis NA Jr. 2022. Moving beyond social categories by incorporating context in social psychological theory. Nat. Rev. Psychol. 1:537–49
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Copur-Gencturk Y, Cimpian JR, Lubienski ST, Thacker I 2020. Teachers’ bias against the mathematical ability of female, Black, and Hispanic students. Educ. Res. 49:30–43
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Devine PG. 1989. Stereotypes and prejudice: their automatic and controlled components. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 56:15–18
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Dwyer-Lindgren L, Kendrick P, Kelly YO, Sylte DO, Schmidt C et al. 2022. Life expectancy by county, race, and ethnicity in the USA, 2000–19: a systematic analysis of health disparities. Lancet 400:1034525–38
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Eberhardt JL, Davies PG, Purdie-Vaughns VJ, Johnson SL 2006. Looking deathworthy: perceived stereotypicality of Black defendants predicts capital-sentencing outcomes. Psychol. Sci. 17:5383–86
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Forscher PS, Lai CK, Axt JR, Ebersole CR, Herman M et al. 2019. A meta-analysis of procedures to change implicit measures. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 117:3522–59
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Forscher PS, Mitamura C, Dix EL, Cox WTL, Devine PG. 2017. Breaking the prejudice habit: mechanisms, timecourse, and longevity. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 72:133–46
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Gaither SE, Sommers SR. 2013. Living with an other-race roommate shapes Whites’ behavior in subsequent diverse settings. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 49:272–76
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Gershenson S, Holt SB, Papageorge NW. 2015. Who believes in me? The effect of student-teacher demographic match on teacher expectations. Econ. Educ. Rev. 52:209–24
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Greenwald AG, Lai CK. 2020. Implicit social cognition. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 71:419–45
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Grzanka PR, Cole ER. 2021. An argument for bad psychology: disciplinary disruption, public engagement, and social transformation. Am. Psychol. 76:81334–45
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Hagiwara N, Slatcher RB, Eggly S, Penner LA. 2017. Physician racial bias and word use during racially discordant medical interactions. Health Commun. 32:4401–8
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Hayes AF. 2022. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach New York: Guilford Publ.
  28. Hoffman KM, Trawalter S, Axt JR, Oliver MN. 2016. Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites. PNAS 113:164296–301
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Jackson J, Bradford B, Hough M, Myhill A, Quinton PK, Tyler T. 2012. Why do people comply with the law? Legitimacy and the influence of legal institutions. Br. J. Criminol. 52:61051–71
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Klinenberg E. 2018. Palaces for the People: How Social Infrastructure Can Help Fight Inequality, Polarization, and the Decline of Civic Life New York: Crown
  31. Kraus MW, Hudson S-KTJ, Richeson J 2021. Framing, context, and the misperception of Black-White wealth inequality. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 1314–13
  32. Kraus MW, Onyeador IN, Daumeyer NM, Rucker JM, Richeson JA. 2019. The misperception of racial economic inequality. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 14:6899–921
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Lai CK, Marini M, Lehr SA, Cerruti C, Shin J-EL et al. 2014. Reducing implicit racial preferences: I. A comparative investigation of 17 interventions. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 143:41765–85
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Lai CK, Skinner AL, Cooley E, Murrar S, Brauer M et al. 2016. Reducing implicit racial preferences: II. Intervention effectiveness across time. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 145:81001–16
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Levitsky S, Ziblatt D. 2019. How Democracies Die New York: Crown:
  36. Lewis NA Jr. 2021a. The difficult but important journey from here to equality. Psychol. Inq. 32:3191–96
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Lewis NA Jr. 2021b. Can we achieve “equality” when we have different understandings of its meaning? How contexts and identities shape the pursuit of egalitarian goals. Psychol. Inq. 32:3155–64
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Lewis NA Jr. 2021c. What counts as good science? How the battle for methodological legitimacy affects public psychology. Am. Psychol. 76:81323–33
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Lewis NA Jr. 2022. What would make cognitive science more useful?. Trends Cogn. Sci. 26:121038–39
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Lewis NA Jr., Oyserman D. 2016. Using identity-based motivation to improve the nation's health without breaking the bank. Behav. Sci. Policy 2:225–38
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1; 1967.)
  42. McPherson M, Smith-Lovin L, Cook JM. 2001. Birds of a feather: homophily in social networks. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 27:415–44
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Michener J. 2018. Fragmented Democracy: Medicaid, Federalism, and Unequal Politics Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  44. Momennejad I, Sinclair S, Cikara M. 2019. Computational justice: simulating structural bias and interventions. bioRxiv 776211. https://doi.org/10.1101/776211
    [Crossref]
  45. Nelsen MD. 2021a. Cultivating youth engagement: race & the behavioral effects of critical pedagogy. Political Behav 43:751–84
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Nelsen MD. 2021b. Teaching citizenship: race and the behavioral effects of American civic education. J. Race Ethn. Politics 6:1157–86
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Newport F. 2013. In U.S., 87% approve of Black-White marriage, versus 4% in 1958. Gallup July 25. http://www.gallup.com/poll/163697/approve-marriage-blacks-whites.aspx
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Nosek BA, Greenwald AG, Banaji MR. 2007. The Implicit Association Test at age 7: a methodological and conceptual review. Social Psychology and the Unconscious: The Automaticity of Higher Mental Processes JA Bargh 265–92. London: Psychology
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S.. 644 2015.)
  50. Ofosu EK, Chambers MK, Chen JM, Hehman E. 2019. Same-sex marriage legalization associated with reduced implicit and explicit antigay bias. PNAS 116:188846–51
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Okonofua JA, Eberhardt JL. 2015. Two strikes: race and the disciplining of young students. Psychol. Sci. 26:5617–24
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Onyeador IN, Hudson S-KTJ, Lewis NA. 2021. Moving beyond implicit bias training: policy insights for increasing organizational diversity. Policy Insights Behav. Brain Sci. 8:119–26
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Onyeador IN, Wittlin NM, Burke SE, Dovidio JF, Perry SP et al. 2020. The value of interracial contact for reducing anti-Black bias among non-Black physicians: a Cognitive Habits and Growth Evaluation (CHANGE) study report. Psychol. Sci. 31:118–30
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Oswald FL, Mitchell G, Blanton H, Jaccard J, Tetlock PE. 2015. Using the IAT to predict ethnic and racial discrimination: small effect sizes of unknown societal significance. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 108:4562–71
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Oyserman D. 2009. A situated cognition model of culture. PsycEXTRA Dataset https://doi.org/10.1037/e566962012-005
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  56. Oyserman D, Lewis NA Jr. 2017. Seeing the destination AND the path: using identity-based motivation to understand and reduce racial disparities in academic achievement. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 11:1159–94
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Oyserman D, Lewis NA Jr., Yan VX, Fisher O. 2017. An identity-based motivation framework for self-regulation. Psychol. Inq. 28:2–3139–47
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Page SE. 2008. The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and Societies Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  59. Paluck EL, Porat R, Clark CS, Green DP. 2021. Prejudice reduction: progress and challenges. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 72:533–60
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Penner LA, Dovidio JF, Gonzalez R, Albrecht TL, Chapman R et al. 2016. The effects of oncologist implicit racial bias in racially discordant oncology interactions. J. Clin. Oncol. 34:242874–80
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Perry S, Skinner-Dorkenoo AL, Wages J, Abaied JL. 2021. Systemic considerations in child development and the pursuit of racial equality in the United States. Psychol. Inq. 32:3180–86
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR. 2006. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 90:5751–83
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537; 1896.)
  64. Quillian L, Pager D, Hexel O, Midtbøen AH. 2017. Meta-analysis of field experiments shows no change in racial discrimination in hiring over time. PNAS 114:4110870–75
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Ray V. 2019. A theory of racialized organizations. Am. Sociol. Rev. 84:126–53
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Robinson PH, Darley JM. 2003. The role of deterrence in the formulation of criminal law rules: at its worst when doing its best. Georgetown Law J. 91:949–1002
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Ross L, Nisbett RE. 2011. The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology London: Pinter & Martin Publ.
  68. Rothstein R. 2017. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America New York: Liveright Publ.
  69. Sommers SR. 2006. On racial diversity and group decision making: identifying multiple effects of racial composition on jury deliberations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 90:4597–612
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Spencer KB, Charbonneau AK, Glaser J. 2016. Implicit bias and policing. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 10:150–63
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Spruill M, Lewis NA Jr. 2023. How do people come to judge what is “reasonable”? Effects of legal and sociological systems on human psychology. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 18:2378–91
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Su A. 2020. A proposal to properly address implicit bias in the jury. Hastings Women's Law J 31:79–100
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Sunstein CR. 1996. Social norms and social roles. Columbia Law Rev 96:903–68
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Tankard ME, Paluck EL. 2016. Norm perception as a vehicle for social change. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 10:1181–211
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Tankard ME, Paluck EL. 2017. The effect of a Supreme Court decision regarding gay marriage on social norms and personal attitudes. Psychol. Sci. 28:91334–44
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Taylor D. 2014. Toxic Communities: Environmental Racism, Industrial Pollution, and Residential Mobility New York: NYU Press
  77. Wilkerson I. 2020. Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents New York: Random House
  78. Wood W, Rünger D. 2016. Psychology of habit. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 67:289–314
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Yarkoni T, Westfall J. 2017. Choosing prediction over explanation in psychology: lessons from machine learning. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 12:61100–22
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Yzerbyt V, Judd CM, Corneille O. 2004. The Psychology of Group Perception: Perceived Variability, Entitativity, and Essentialism London: Psychology
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-111622-063213
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error