1932

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has posed unprecedented challenges in critical care medicine, including extreme demand for intensive care unit (ICU) resources and rapidly evolving understanding of a novel disease. Up to one-third of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 experience critical illness. The most common form of organ failure in COVID-19 critical illness is acute hypoxemic respiratory failure, which clinically presents as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in three-quarters of ICU patients. Noninvasive respiratory support modalities are being used with increasing frequency given their potential to reduce the need for intubation. Determining optimal patient selection for and timing of intubation remains a challenge. Management of mechanically ventilated patients with COVID-19 largely mirrors that of non-COVID-19 ARDS. Organ failure is common and portends a poor prognosis. Mortality rates have improved over the course of the pandemic, likely owing to increasing disease familiarity, data-driven pharmacologics, and improved adherence to evidence-based critical care.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042420-110629
2022-01-27
2024-12-04
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/med/73/1/annurev-med-042420-110629.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042420-110629&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. 
    Dong E, Du H, Gardner L. 2020.. An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time. . Lancet Infect. Dis. 20:(5):53334
    [Google Scholar]
  2. 2. 
    Abate SM, Ahmed Ali S, Mantfardo B, et al. 2020.. Rate of intensive care unit admission and outcomes among patients with coronavirus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. . PLOS ONE 15:(7):e0235653
    [Google Scholar]
  3. 3. 
    Docherty AB, Harrison EM, Green CA, et al. 2020.. Features of 20 133 UK patients in hospital with covid-19 using the ISARIC WHO Clinical Characterisation Protocol: prospective observational cohort study. . BMJ 369::m1985
    [Google Scholar]
  4. 4. 
    Cummings MJ, Baldwin MR, Abrams D, et al. 2020.. Epidemiology, clinical course, and outcomes of critically ill adults with COVID-19 in New York City: a prospective cohort study. . Lancet 395:(10239):176370
    [Google Scholar]
  5. 5. 
    Gupta S, Hayek SS, Wang W, et al. 2020.. Factors associated with death in critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in the US. . JAMA Intern. Med. 180:(11):143647
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6. 
    Tan E, Song J, Deane AM, et al. 2021.. Global impact of coronavirus disease 2019 infection requiring admission to the ICU: a systematic review and meta-analysis. . Chest 159:(2):52436
    [Google Scholar]
  7. 7. 
    Supady A, Curtis JR, Abrams D, et al. 2021.. Allocating scarce intensive care resources during the COVID-19 pandemic: practical challenges to theoretical frameworks. . Lancet Respir. Med. 9:(4):43034
    [Google Scholar]
  8. 8. 
    Asch DA, Sheils NE, Islam MN, et al. 2020.. Variation in US hospital mortality rates for patients admitted with COVID-19 during the first 6 months of the pandemic. . JAMA Intern. Med. 181:(4):47178
    [Google Scholar]
  9. 9. 
    Schmidt M, Hajage D, Demoule A, et al. 2021.. Clinical characteristics and day-90 outcomes of 4244 critically ill adults with COVID-19: a prospective cohort study. . Intensive Care Med. 47:(1):6073
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 10. 
    WHO (World Health Organ.). 2021.. COVID-19 clinical management: living guidance. Living guidance WHO/2019-nCoV/clinical/2021.1, WHO, Geneva, Switz. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-clinical-2021-1
    [Google Scholar]
  11. 11. 
    Sjoding MW, Dickson RP, Iwashyna TJ, et al. 2020.. Racial bias in pulse oximetry measurement. . N. Engl. J. Med. 383:(25):247778
    [Google Scholar]
  12. 12. 
    Ahn JY, An S, Sohn Y, et al. 2020.. Environmental contamination in the isolation rooms of COVID-19 patients with severe pneumonia requiring mechanical ventilation or high-flow oxygen therapy. . J. Hosp. Infect. 106:(3):57076
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 13. 
    Schünemann HJ, Khabsa J, Solo K, et al. 2020.. Ventilation techniques and risk for transmission of coronavirus disease, including COVID-19: a living systematic review of multiple streams of evidence. . Ann. Intern. Med. 173:(3):20416 Living review of noninvasive respiratory support strategies and risk of viral transmission to healthcare workers.
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14. 
    Westafer LM, Soares WE 3rd, Salvador D, et al. 2021.. No evidence of increasing COVID-19 in health care workers after implementation of high flow nasal cannula: a safety evaluation. . Am. J. Emerg. Med. 39::15861
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15. 
    Avari H, Hiebert RJ, Ryzynski AA, et al. 2021.. Quantitative assessment of viral dispersion associated with respiratory support devices in a simulated critical care environment. . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 203:(9):111218
    [Google Scholar]
  16. 16. 
    Leonard S, Atwood CW Jr., Walsh BK, et al. 2020.. Preliminary findings on control of dispersion of aerosols and droplets during high-velocity nasal insufflation therapy using a simple surgical mask: implications for the high-flow nasal cannula. . Chest 158:(3):104649
    [Google Scholar]
  17. 17. 
    Montiel V, Robert A, Robert A, et al. 2020.. Surgical mask on top of high-flow nasal cannula improves oxygenation in critically ill COVID-19 patients with hypoxemic respiratory failure. . Ann. Intensive Care. 10:(1):125
    [Google Scholar]
  18. 18. 
    Tobin MJ, Laghi F, Jubran A. 2020.. Caution about early intubation and mechanical ventilation in COVID-19. . Ann. Intensive Care 10:(1):78
    [Google Scholar]
  19. 19. 
    Gershengorn HB, Hu Y, Chen J-T, et al. 2020.. The impact of high-flow nasal cannula use on patient mortality and the availability of mechanical ventilators in COVID-19. . Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 18:(4):62331
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 20. 
    Odor PM, Neun M, Bampoe S, et al. 2020.. Anaesthesia and COVID-19: infection control. . Br. J. Anaesth. 125:(1):1624 Details key infectious precautions for the management of patients with COVID-19.
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. 
    Kangas-Dick AW, Swearingen B, Wan E, et al. 2020.. Safe extubation during the COVID-19 pandemic. . Respir. Med. 170::106038
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22. 
    Sandefur BJ, Niven AS, Gleich SJ, et al. 2020.. Practical guidance for tracheal intubation of patients with COVID-19. . Mayo Clin. Proc. 95:(11):232731
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23. 
    Ferreyro BL, Angriman F, Munshi L, et al. 2020.. Association of noninvasive oxygenation strategies with all-cause mortality in adults with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. . JAMA 324:(1):5767
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24. 
    Bonnet N, Martin O, Boubaya M, et al. 2021.. High flow nasal oxygen therapy to avoid invasive mechanical ventilation in SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia: a retrospective study. . Ann. Intensive Care 11:(1):37
    [Google Scholar]
  25. 25. 
    Demoule A, Vieillard Baron A, Darmon M, et al. 2020.. High-flow nasal cannula in critically ill patients with severe COVID-19. . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 202:(7):103942
    [Google Scholar]
  26. 26. 
    Franco C, Facciolongo N, Tonelli R, et al. 2020.. Feasibility and clinical impact of out-of-ICU noninvasive respiratory support in patients with COVID-19-related pneumonia. . Eur. Respir. J. 56:(5):2002130
    [Google Scholar]
  27. 27. 
    Grieco DL, Menga LS, Cesarano M, et al. 2021.. Effect of helmet noninvasive ventilation versus high-flow nasal oxygen on days free of respiratory support in patients with COVID-19 and moderate to severe hypoxemic respiratory failure: the HENIVOT randomized clinical trial. . JAMA 325:(17):173143
    [Google Scholar]
  28. 28. 
    Raoof S, Nava S, Carpati C, et al. 2020.. High-flow, noninvasive ventilation and awake (nonintubation) proning in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 with respiratory failure. . Chest 158:(5):19922002
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29. 
    Munshi L, Del Sorbo L, Adhikari NKJ, et al. 2017.. Prone position for acute respiratory distress syndrome. A systematic review and meta-analysis. . Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 14:(Suppl. 4):S28088
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30. 
    Ding L, Wang L, Ma W, et al. 2020.. Efficacy and safety of early prone positioning combined with HFNC or NIV in moderate to severe ARDS: a multi-center prospective cohort study. . Crit. Care 24::28
    [Google Scholar]
  31. 31. 
    Taylor SP, Bundy H, Smith WM, et al. 2021.. Awake-prone positioning strategy for nonintubated hypoxic patients with COVID-19: a pilot trial with embedded implementation evaluation. . Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 18:(8):136068
    [Google Scholar]
  32. 32. 
    Cardona S, Downing J, Alfalasi R, et al. 2021.. Intubation rate of patients with hypoxia due to COVID-19 treated with awake proning: a meta-analysis. . Am. J. Emerg. Med. 43::8896
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33. 
    Weatherald J, Solverson K, Zuege DJ, et al. 2021.. Awake prone positioning for COVID-19 hypoxemic respiratory failure: a rapid review. . J. Crit. Care 61::6370
    [Google Scholar]
  34. 34. 
    Ferrando C, Mellado-Artigas R, Gea A, et al. 2020.. Awake prone positioning does not reduce the risk of intubation in COVID-19 treated with high-flow nasal oxygen therapy: a multicenter, adjusted cohort study. . Crit. Care 24::597 Highlights barriers to successful randomized controlled trials examining self-prone positioning.
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35. 
    Brower RG, Matthay MA, Morris A, et al. 2000.. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. . N. Engl. J. Med. 342:(18):13018
    [Google Scholar]
  36. 36. 
    Alhazzani W, Evans L, Alshamsi F, et al. 2021.. Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines on the management of adults with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the ICU: first update. . Crit. Care Med. 49:(3):e21934
    [Google Scholar]
  37. 37. 
    Patel BK, Wolfe KS, Hall JB, et al. 2017.. A word of caution regarding patient self-inflicted lung injury and prophylactic intubation. . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 196:(7):936
    [Google Scholar]
  38. 38. 
    Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, et al. 2020.. Presenting characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes among 5700 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York City area. . JAMA 323:(20):205259
    [Google Scholar]
  39. 39. 
    Grasselli G, Cattaneo E, Florio G, et al. 2021.. Mechanical ventilation parameters in critically ill COVID-19 patients: a scoping review. . Crit. Care 25::115
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 40. 
    Kangelaris KN, Ware LB, Wang CY, et al. 2016.. Timing of intubation and clinical outcomes in adults with acute respiratory distress syndrome. . Crit. Care Med. 44:(1):12029
    [Google Scholar]
  41. 41. 
    Papoutsi E, Giannakoulis VG, Xourgia E, et al. 2021.. Effect of timing of intubation on clinical outcomes of critically ill patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis of non-randomized cohort studies. . Crit. Care 25::121 Describes physiology and outcomes for mechanically ventilated COVID-19 patients, similar to ARDS of other etiologies.
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42. 
    Sjoding MW, Luo K, Miller MA, et al. 2015.. When do confounding by indication and inadequate risk adjustment bias critical care studies? A simulation study. . Crit. Care 19::195
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43. 
    Hernán MA, Robins JM. 2016.. Using big data to emulate a target trial when a randomized trial is not available. . Am. J. Epidemiol. 183:(8):75864
    [Google Scholar]
  44. 44. 
    Mellado-Artigas R, Ferreyro BL, Angriman F, et al. 2021.. High-flow nasal oxygen in patients with COVID-19-associated acute respiratory failure. . Crit. Care 25::58
    [Google Scholar]
  45. 45. 
    Nasa P, Azoulay E, Khanna AK, et al. 2021.. Expert consensus statements for the management of COVID-19-related acute respiratory failure using a Delphi method. . Crit. Care 25::106 Describes target trial methodology to guide causal inference in observational studies.
    [Google Scholar]
  46. 46. 
    Gattinoni L, Coppola S, Cressoni M, et al. 2020.. COVID-19 does not lead to a “typical” acute respiratory distress syndrome. . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 201:(10):1299300
    [Google Scholar]
  47. 47. 
    Fan E, Del Sorbo L, Goligher EC, et al. 2017.. An official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 195:(9):125363 Consensus statements on the management of COVID-19-related AHRF.
    [Google Scholar]
  48. 48. 
    Bugedo G, Retamal J, Bruhn A. 2017.. Driving pressure: a marker of severity, a safety limit, or a goal for mechanical ventilation?. Crit. Care 21::199
    [Google Scholar]
  49. 49. 
    Mathews KS, Soh H, Shaefi S, et al. 2021.. Prone positioning and survival in mechanically ventilated patients with coronavirus disease 2019-related respiratory failure. . Crit. Care Med. 49:(7):102637
    [Google Scholar]
  50. 50. 
    Douglas IS, Rosenthal CA, Swanson DD, et al. 2021.. Safety and outcomes of prolonged usual care prone position mechanical ventilation to treat acute coronavirus disease 2019 hypoxemic respiratory failure. . Crit. Care Med. 49:(3):490502
    [Google Scholar]
  51. 51. 
    Pensier J, de Jong A, Hajjej Z, et al. 2019.. Effect of lung recruitment maneuver on oxygenation, physiological parameters and mortality in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. . Intensive Care Med. 45:(12):1691702
    [Google Scholar]
  52. 52. 
    Capaccione KM, D'Souza B, Leb J, et al. 2021.. Pneumothorax rate in intubated patients with COVID-19. . Acute Crit. Care 36:(1):8184
    [Google Scholar]
  53. 53. 
    Gupta A, Madhavan MV, Sehgal K, et al. 2020.. Extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19. . Nat. Med. 26:(7):101732
    [Google Scholar]
  54. 54. 
    Alhazzani W, Belley-Cote E, Møller MH, et al. 2020.. Neuromuscular blockade in patients with ARDS: a rapid practice guideline. . Intensive Care Med. 46:(11):197786
    [Google Scholar]
  55. 55. 
    Patel BV, Arachchillage DJ, Ridge CA, et al. 2020.. Pulmonary angiopathy in severe COVID-19: physiologic, imaging, and hematologic observations. . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 202:(5):69099 Describes extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19.
    [Google Scholar]
  56. 56. 
    Adhikari NKJ, Dellinger RP, Lundin S, et al. 2014.. Inhaled nitric oxide does not reduce mortality in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome regardless of severity: systematic review and meta-analysis. . Crit. Care Med. 42:(2):40412
    [Google Scholar]
  57. 57. 
    Fuller BM, Mohr NM, Skrupky L, et al. 2015.. The use of inhaled prostaglandins in patients with ARDS: a systematic review and meta-analysis. . Chest 147:(6):151022
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58. 
    DeGrado JR, Szumita PM, Schuler BR, et al. 2020.. Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of inhaled epoprostenol and inhaled nitric oxide for refractory hypoxemia in patients with coronavirus disease 2019. . Crit. Care Explor. 2:(10):e0259
    [Google Scholar]
  59. 59. 
    Zhu Y, Zhang M, Zhang R, et al. 2021.. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation versus mechanical ventilation alone in adults with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. . Int. J. Clin. Pract.e14046. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcp.14046
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  60. 60. 
    Barbaro RP, MacLaren G, Boonstra PS, et al. 2020.. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in COVID-19: an international cohort study of the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry. . Lancet 396:(10257):107178
    [Google Scholar]
  61. 61. 
    Devlin JW, O'Neal HR Jr., Thomas C, et al. 2020.. Strategies to optimize ICU liberation (A to F) bundle performance in critically ill adults with coronavirus disease 2019. . Crit. Care Explor. 2:(6):e0139
    [Google Scholar]
  62. 62. 
    Subirà C, Hernández G, Vázquez A, et al. 2019.. Effect of pressure support versus T-piece ventilation strategies during spontaneous breathing trials on successful extubation among patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomized clinical trial. . JAMA 321:(22):217582
    [Google Scholar]
  63. 63. 
    Zhou X, Yao S, Dong P, et al. 2020.. Preventive use of respiratory support after scheduled extubation in critically ill medical patients—a network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. . Crit. Care 24::370 Describes practical strategies to optimize ICU liberation bundle performance for patients with COVID-19.
    [Google Scholar]
  64. 64. 
    Divo MJ, Oberg CL, Pritchett MA, et al. 2020.. Methods for a seamless transition from tracheostomy to spontaneous breathing in patients with COVID-19. . Respir. Care 65:(11):177383
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65. 
    McGrath BA, Brenner MJ, Warrillow SJ, et al. 2020.. Tracheostomy in the COVID-19 era: global and multidisciplinary guidance. . Lancet Respir. Med. 8:(7):71725
    [Google Scholar]
  66. 66. 
    Frontera JA, Melmed K, Fang T, et al. 2021.. Toxic metabolic encephalopathy in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. . Neurocrit. Care. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-021-01220-5
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  67. 67. 
    Pun BT, Badenes R, Heras La Calle G, et al. 2021.. Prevalence and risk factors for delirium in critically ill patients with COVID-19 (COVID-D): a multicentre cohort study. . Lancet Respir. Med. 9:(3):23950
    [Google Scholar]
  68. 68. 
    Caforio ALP, Baritussio A, Basso C, Marcolongo R. 2022.. Myocarditis temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection. . Annu. Rev. Med. 73::14966
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69. 
    Hensley MK, Markantone D, Prescott HC. 2022.. Neurologic manifestations and complications of COVID-19. . Annu. Rev. Med. 73::11327
    [Google Scholar]
  70. 70. 
    Prendergast N, Tiberio PJ, Girard TD. 2022.. Treatment of delirium during critical illness. . Annu. Rev. Med. 73::40721
    [Google Scholar]
  71. 71. 
    Leisman DE, Ronner L, Pinotti R, et al. 2020.. Cytokine elevation in severe and critical COVID-19: a rapid systematic review, meta-analysis, and comparison with other inflammatory syndromes. . Lancet Respir. Med. 8:(12):123344
    [Google Scholar]
  72. 72. 
    Wang Y, Perlman S. 2022.. COVID-19: inflammatory profile. . Annu. Rev. Med. 73::6580
    [Google Scholar]
  73. 73. 
    Bilaloglu S, Aphinyanaphongs Y, Jones S, et al. 2020.. Thrombosis in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in a New York City health system. . JAMA 324:(8):799801
    [Google Scholar]
  74. 74. 
    Smilowitz NR, Subashchandran V, Yuriditsky E, et al. 2021.. Thrombosis in hospitalized patients with viral respiratory infections versus COVID-19. . Am. Heart J. 231::9395
    [Google Scholar]
  75. 75. 
    Sadeghipour P, Talasaz AH, Rashidi F, et al. 2021.. Effect of intermediate-dose versus standard-dose prophylactic anticoagulation on thrombotic events, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation treatment, or mortality among patients with COVID-19 admitted to the intensive care unit: the INSPIRATION randomized clinical trial. . JAMA 325:(16):162030
    [Google Scholar]
  76. 76. 
    NIH (Natl. Inst. Health). 2020.. NIH ACTIV Trial of blood thinners pauses enrollment of critically ill COVID-19 patients. News release, Dec. 22 , NIH, Bethesda, MD:. https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-activ-trial-blood-thinners-pauses-enrollment-critically-ill-covid-19-patients
    [Google Scholar]
  77. 77. 
    Cuker A, Tseng EK, Nieuwlaat R, et al. 2021.. American Society of Hematology 2021 guidelines on the use of anticoagulation for thromboprophylaxis in patients with COVID-19. . Blood Adv. 5:(3):87288
    [Google Scholar]
  78. 78. 
    Chanques G, Constantin J-M, Devlin JW, et al. 2020.. Analgesia and sedation in patients with ARDS. . Intensive Care Med. 46:(12):234256
    [Google Scholar]
  79. 79. 
    Wongtangman K, Santer P, Wachtendorf LJ, et al. 2021.. Association of sedation, coma, and in-hospital mortality in mechanically ventilated patients with coronavirus disease 2019–related acute respiratory distress syndrome: a retrospective cohort study. . Crit. Care Med. 49::152434
    [Google Scholar]
  80. 80. 
    Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, et al. 2018.. Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. . Crit. Care Med. 46:(9):e825 Guidance for analgesia and sedation in patients with COVID-19 and ARDS.
    [Google Scholar]
  81. 81. 
    Horby P, Lim WS, Emberson JR, et al. 2021.. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with Covid-19. . N. Engl. J. Med. 384:(8):693704
    [Google Scholar]
  82. 82. 
    Sterne JAC, Murthy S, Diaz JV, et al. 2020.. Association between administration of systemic cortico-steroids and mortality among critically ill patients with COVID-19: a meta-analysis. . JAMA 324:(13):133041
    [Google Scholar]
  83. 83. 
    Gordon AC, Mouncey PR, Al-Beidh F, et al. 2021.. Interleukin-6 receptor antagonists in critically ill patients with Covid-19. . N. Engl. J. Med. 384:(16):1491502
    [Google Scholar]
  84. 84. 
    Veiga VC, Prats JAGG, Farias DLC, et al. 2021.. Effect of tocilizumab on clinical outcomes at 15 days in patients with severe or critical coronavirus disease 2019: randomised controlled trial. . BMJ 372::n84
    [Google Scholar]
  85. 85. 
    NIH (Natl. Inst. Health). 2021.. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment guidelines. NIH, Bethesda, MD. https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/
    [Google Scholar]
  86. 86. 
    Beigel JH, Tomashek KM, Dodd LE, et al. 2020.. Remdesivir for the treatment of covid-19—final report. . N. Engl. J. Med. 383:(19):181326
    [Google Scholar]
  87. 87. 
    Pan H, Peto R, Henao-Restrepo A-M, et al. 2021.. Repurposed antiviral drugs for Covid-19—interim WHO Solidarity Trial results. . N. Engl. J. Med. 384:(6):497511
    [Google Scholar]
  88. 88. 
    Simonovich VA, Burgos Pratx LD, Scibona P, et al. 2021.. A randomized trial of convalescent plasma in Covid-19 severe pneumonia. . N. Engl. J. Med. 384:(7):61929
    [Google Scholar]
  89. 89. 
    Lim ZJ, Subramaniam A, Ponnapa Reddy M, et al. 2021.. Case fatality rates for patients with COVID-19 requiring invasive mechanical ventilation. A meta-analysis. . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 203:(1):5466
    [Google Scholar]
  90. 90. 
    Gupta RK, Harrison EM, Ho A, et al. 2021.. Development and validation of the ISARIC 4C deterioration model for adults hospitalised with COVID-19: a prospective cohort study. . Lancet Respir. Med. 9:(4):34959
    [Google Scholar]
  91. 91. 
    Domecq JP, Lal A, Sheldrick CR, et al. 2021.. Outcomes of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 receiving organ support therapies: the International Viral Infection and Respiratory Illness Universal Study Registry. . Crit. Care Med. 49:(3):43748
    [Google Scholar]
  92. 92. 
    Oxford-Horrey C, Savage M, Prabhu M, et al. 2020.. Putting it all together: clinical considerations in the care of critically ill obstetric patients with COVID-19. . Am. J. Perinatol. 37:(10):104451
    [Google Scholar]
  93. 93. 
    Metz TD, Clifton RG, Hughes BL, et al. 2021.. Disease severity and perinatal outcomes of pregnant patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). . Obstet. Gynecol. 137:(4):57180
    [Google Scholar]
  94. 94. 
    Upshaw TL, Brown C, Smith R, et al. 2021.. Social determinants of COVID-19 incidence and outcomes: a rapid review. . PLOS ONE 16:(3):e0248336
    [Google Scholar]
  95. 95. 
    Mackey K, Ayers CK, Kondo KK, et al. 2021.. Racial and ethnic disparities in COVID-19-related infections, hospitalizations, and deaths: a systematic review. . Ann. Intern. Med. 174:(3):36273
    [Google Scholar]
  96. 96. 
    Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA. 2019.. Racism and health: evidence and needed research. . Annu. Rev. Public Health 40::10525 International meta-analysis of social determinants of COVID-19 incidence and outcomes.
    [Google Scholar]
  97. 97. 
    Fausto J, Hirano L, Lam D, et al. 2020.. Creating a palliative care inpatient response plan for COVID-19—the UW Medicine experience. . J. Pain Symptom Manag. 60:(1):e2126
    [Google Scholar]
  98. 98. 
    Needham DM, Davidson J, Cohen H, et al. 2012.. Improving long-term outcomes after discharge from intensive care unit: report from a stakeholders’ conference. . Crit. Care Med. 40:(2):5029
    [Google Scholar]
  99. 99. 
    Vadász I, Husain-Syed F, Dorfmüller P, et al. 2021.. Severe organising pneumonia following COVID-19. . Thorax 76::2014
    [Google Scholar]
  100. 100. 
    Spagnolo P, Balestro E, Aliberti S, et al. 2020.. Pulmonary fibrosis secondary to COVID-19: a call to arms?. Lancet Respir. Med. 8:(8):75052
    [Google Scholar]
  101. 101. 
    Doerschug GA, Schmidt KC. 2022.. COVID-19: pulmonary aspects. . Annu. Rev. Med. 73::8193
    [Google Scholar]
  102. 102. 
    Davies NG, Jarvis CI, CMMID COVID-19 Work. Group, et al. 2021.. Increased mortality in community-tested cases of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.1.7. . Nature 593::27074
    [Google Scholar]
  103. 103. 
    Blumberg EA, Manuel O, Sester M, et al. 2021.. The future of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in transplant recipients: to be determined. . Am. J. Transplant. 21:(8):262930
    [Google Scholar]
  104. 104. 
    Rossman H, Shilo S, Meir T, et al. 2021.. COVID-19 dynamics after a national immunization program in Israel. . Nat. Med. 27::105561
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042420-110629
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-042420-110629
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error