1932

Abstract

Fungicides should be used to the extent required to minimize economic costs of disease in a given field in a given season. The maximum number of treatments and maximum dose per treatment are set by fungicide manufacturers and regulators at a level that provides effective control under high disease pressure. Lower doses are economically optimal under low or moderate disease pressure, or where other control measures such as resistant cultivars constrain epidemics. Farmers in many countries often apply reduced doses, although they may still apply higher doses than the optimum to insure against losses in high disease seasons. Evidence supports reducing the number of treatments and reducing the applied dose to slow the evolution of fungicide resistance. The continuing research challenge is to improve prediction of future disease damage and account for the combined effect of integrated control measures to estimate the optimum number of treatments and the optimum dose needed to minimize economic costs. The theory for optimizing dose is well developed but requires translation into decision tools because the current basis for farmers’ dose decisions is unclear.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-phyto-080516-035357
2017-08-04
2024-10-15
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/phyto/55/1/annurev-phyto-080516-035357.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-phyto-080516-035357&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. Agric. Hortic. Dev. Board. 2016. Wheat disease management guide E Boys, F Geary Kenilworth, UK: AHDB https://cereals.ahdb.org.uk/media/176167/g63-wheat-disease-management-guide-february-2016.pdf [Google Scholar]
  2. Akers A, Köhle H, Gold R. 2.  1990. Uptake, transport and mode of action of BAS 480 F, a new triazole fungicide. Proc. Brighton Crop Prot. Conf. Pests Dis., Brighton, Novemb 19–22, 2837–45 Thornton Heath, UK: BCPC [Google Scholar]
  3. 3. Arvalis. 2016. Integrated Plant Protection Dossier, Resistant Varieties: This has a Double Advantage for Disease Control Paris: Arvalis http://arvalis.wedia.fr/file/galleryelement/pj/b9/6e/48/47/429_49_anglais4928343557563375334.pdf [Google Scholar]
  4. Audsley E, Milne A, Paveley N. 4.  2006. A foliar disease model for use in wheat disease. Ann. Appl. Biol. 147:161–72 [Google Scholar]
  5. Bartlett DW, Clough JM, Godwin JR, Hall AA, Hamer M, Parr-Dobrzanski B. 5.  2002. The strobilurin fungicides. Pest Manag. Sci. 58:649–62 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bergelson J, Purrington CB. 6.  1996. Surveying patterns in the cost of resistance in plants. Am. Nat. 148:536–58 [Google Scholar]
  7. Bjerre K, Jørgensen LN, Olesen JE. 7.  2006. Site-specific management of crop diseases. Handbook of Precision Agriculture: Principles and Applications, Vol. 1 A Srinivasan 207–51 New York/London/Oxford: Haworth Press [Google Scholar]
  8. Brown JKM. 8.  2002. Yield penalties of disease resistance in crops. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 5:339–44 [Google Scholar]
  9. Brown JKM. 9.  2015. Durable resistance of crops to disease: a Darwinian perspective. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 53:513–39 [Google Scholar]
  10. Bryson RJ, Paveley ND, Clark WS, Sylvester-Bradley R, Scott RK. 10.  1997. Use of in-field measurements of green leaf area and incident radiation to estimate the effects of yellow rust epidemics on the yield of winter wheat. Eur. J. Agron. 7:53–62 [Google Scholar]
  11. Buchenauer H. 11.  1987. Mechanism of action of triazolyl fungicides and related compounds. Modern Selective Fungicides: Properties, Applications, Mechanisms of Action H Lyr 205–31 Harlow, UK: Longman Sci. Tech. [Google Scholar]
  12. Clark B. 12.  2006. Fungicide resistance: Are we winning the battle but losing the war?. Asp. Appl. Biol. 78:127–32 [Google Scholar]
  13. Cools HJ, Fraaije BA. 13.  2013. Update on mechanisms of azole resistance in Mycosphaerella graminicola and implications for future control. Pest Manag. Sci. 69:150–55 [Google Scholar]
  14. Cools HJ, Mullins JGL, Fraaije BA, Parker JE, Kelly DE. 14.  et al. 2011. Impact of recently emerged sterol 14 α-demethylase (CYP51) variants of Mycosphaerella graminicola on azole fungicide sensitivity. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 77:3830–37 [Google Scholar]
  15. Cornish-Bowden A. 15.  1974. A simple graphical method for determining the inhibition constants of mixed, uncompetitive and non-competitive inhibitors. Biochem. J. 137:143–44 [Google Scholar]
  16. Cowger C, Hoffer ME, Mundt CC. 16.  2000. Specific adaptation by Mycosphaerella graminicola to a resistant wheat cultivar. Plant Pathol 49:445–51 [Google Scholar]
  17. Dooley H, Shaw MW, Spink J, Kildea S. 17.  2016. Effect of azole fungicide mixtures, alternations and dose on azole sensitivity in the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. . Plant Pathol. 65:124–36 [Google Scholar]
  18. Engels AJG, de Waard MA. 18.  1996. Fitness of isolates of Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici with reduced sensitivity to fenpropimorph. Crop Prot 15:771–77 [Google Scholar]
  19. Engels AJG, Mantel BC, de Waard MA. 19.  1996. Effect of split applications of fenpropimorph-containing fungicides on sensitivity of Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici. Plant Pathol. 45:636–43 [Google Scholar]
  20. 20. EPPO. 2012. EPPO Guideline on minimum effective dose. Bull. OEPP/EPPO Bull. 42:403–4 [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. Eur. Union. 2009. Council Directive 2009/128/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for Community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides. Off. J. Eur. Comm. L 309/71, 24.11.2009 71–86 [Google Scholar]
  22. Finney J. 22.  1993. Risk and rewards from lower chemical inputs into agriculture. Maximising Profits with Lower Inputs144–58 London: HGCA [Google Scholar]
  23. Foulkes MJ, Paveley ND, Worland A, Welham SJ, Thomas J, Snape JW. 23.  2006. Major genetic changes in wheat with potential to affect disease tolerance. Phytopathology 96:680–88 [Google Scholar]
  24. Furuya S, Mochizuki M, Aoki Y, Kobayashi H, Takayanagi T. 24.  et al. 2011. Isolation and characterization of Bacillus subtilis KS1 for the biocontrol of grapevine fungal diseases. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 21:705–20 [Google Scholar]
  25. Garthwaite DG, Barker I, Laybourn R, Huntly A, Parrish GP. 25.  et al. 2014. Pesticide Usage Survey Report 263: Arable From Crops in the United Kingdom 2014 Rep. 263, FERA York, UK: [Google Scholar]
  26. Gaunt RE. 26.  1995. The relationship between plant disease severity and yield. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 33:119–44 [Google Scholar]
  27. Gebbers R, Adamchuk VI. 27.  2010. Precision agriculture and food security. Science 327:828–31 [Google Scholar]
  28. Geiger F, Bengtsson J, Berendse F, Weisser WW, Emmerson M. 28.  et al. 2010. Persistent negative effects of pesticides on biodiversity and biological control potential on European farmland. Basic Appl. Ecol. 11:97–105 [Google Scholar]
  29. Gisi U, Sierotzki H, Cook A, McCaffery A. 29.  2002. Mechanisms influencing the evolution of resistance to Qo inhibitor fungicides. Pest Manag. Sci. 58:859–67 [Google Scholar]
  30. Gladders P, Paveley ND, Barrie IA, Hardwick NV, Hims MJ. 30.  et al. 2001. Agronomic and meteorological factors affecting the severity of leaf blotch caused by Mycosphaerella graminicola in commercial wheat crops in England. Ann. Appl. Biol. 138:301–11 [Google Scholar]
  31. Grimmer MK, Boyd LA, Clarke SM, Paveley ND. 31.  2015. Pyramiding of partial disease resistance genes has a predictable, but diminishing, benefit to efficacy. Plant Pathol 64:748–53 [Google Scholar]
  32. Hansen JG, Secher BJM, Jørgensen LN, Welling B. 32.  1994. Thresholds for control of Septoria spp. in winter wheat based on precipitation and growth stage. Plant Pathol 43:183–89 [Google Scholar]
  33. Hardwick NV, Jones DR, Slough JE. 33.  2001. Factors affecting diseases of winter wheat in England and Wales, 1989–98. Plant Pathol 50:453–62 [Google Scholar]
  34. Henriksen KE, Jørgensen LN, Nielsen GC. 34.  2000. PC-Plant Protection: a Danish tool to reduce fungicide input in cereals. Proc. Brighton Crop Prot. Conf. Pests Dis., Brighton Novemb 13–16, 1–3835–40 Farnham, UK: BCPC [Google Scholar]
  35. Hewlett P. 35.  1979. The Interpretation of Quantal Responses in Biology London: Edward Arnold [Google Scholar]
  36. Hobbelen PHF, Paveley ND, van den Bosch F. 36.  2014. The emergence of resistance to fungicides. PLOS ONE 9:e91910 [Google Scholar]
  37. Hovmøller MS, Walter S, Bayles RA, Hubbard A, Flath K. 37.  et al. 2016. Replacement of the European wheat yellow rust population by new races from the centre of diversity in the near-Himalayan region. Plant Pathol 65:402–11 [Google Scholar]
  38. Hughes G, McRoberts N, Burnett FJ. 38.  1999. Decision making and diagnosis in disease management. Plant Pathol 48:147–53 [Google Scholar]
  39. Ilbery B, Maye D, Little R. 39.  2012. Plant disease risk and grower-agronomist perceptions and relationships: an analysis of the UK potato and wheat sectors. Appl. Geogr. 34:306–15 [Google Scholar]
  40. Jacobsen BJ, Zidack NK, Larson BJ. 40.  2004. The role of Bacillus-based biological control agents in integrated pest management systems: plant diseases. Phytopathology 94:1272–75 [Google Scholar]
  41. Jeger MJ. 41.  1984. The use of mathematical models in plant disease epidemiology. Sci. Hortic. 35:11–27 [Google Scholar]
  42. Jensen PK, Jørgensen LN. 42.  2016. Interactions between crop biomass and development of foliar diseases in winter wheat and the potential to graduate the fungicide dose according to crop biomass. Crop Prot 81:92–98 [Google Scholar]
  43. Jørgensen LN, Hovmøller MS, Hansen JG, Lassen P, Clark B. 43.  et al. 2014. IPM strategies and their dilemmas including an introduction to www.eurowheat.org. J. Integr. Agric. 13:265–81 [Google Scholar]
  44. Jørgensen LN, Nielsen BJ. 44.  1994. Control of yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis) on winter wheat by ergosterol inhibitors at full and reduced dosages. Crop Prot 13:323–30 [Google Scholar]
  45. Jørgensen LN, Nielsen GC, Ørum JE, Jensen JE, Pinnschmidt HO. 45.  2008. Integrating disease control in winter wheat: optimizing fungicide input. Proc. Int. Reinhardsbrunn Symp. 2007, 15th, Friedrichroda, Germ. May 15–16 197–210 Braunschweig, Germ.: DPG Spectr. Phytomedizin [Google Scholar]
  46. Jørgensen LN, Secher BJM, Olesen JE, Mortensen J. 46.  1997. Need for fungicide treatments when varying agricultural parameters. Asp. Appl. Biol. 50:285–92 [Google Scholar]
  47. Kildea S. 47.  2016. Wheat disease control and resistance issues. Proc. Natl. Tillage Conf. 2016, Kilkenny Jan. 26 39 Carlow, Irel.: Teagasc [Google Scholar]
  48. Koch A, Kogel KH. 48.  2014. New wind in the sails: improving the agronomic value of crop plants through RNAi-mediated gene silencing. Plant Biotechnol. J. 12:821–31 [Google Scholar]
  49. Kudsk P, Jensen JE. 49.  2014. Experiences with implementation and adoption of integrated pest management in Denmark. Integrated Pest Management, Experiences with Implementation, Global Overview R Peshin, D Pimentel 4677–485 Amsterdam, Neth.: Springer [Google Scholar]
  50. Lamichhane JR, Dachbrodt-Saaydeh S, Kudsk P, Messean A. 50.  2016. Toward a reduced reliance on conventional pesticides in European agriculture. Plant Dis 100:10–24 [Google Scholar]
  51. Leroux P, Walker AS. 51.  2011. Multiple mechanisms account for resistance to sterol 14 α-demethylation inhibitors in field isolates of Mycosphaerella graminicola. . Pest Manag. Sci. 67:44–59 [Google Scholar]
  52. Li H, Zhao J, Feng H, Huang LL, Kang ZS. 52.  2013. Biological control of wheat stripe rust by an endophytic Bacillus subtilis strain E1R-j in greenhouse and field trials. Crop Prot 43:201–6 [Google Scholar]
  53. Lo Iacono G, van den Bosch F, Paveley N. 53.  2012. The evolution of plant pathogens in response to host resistance: factors affecting the gain from deployment of qualitative and quantitative resistance. J. Theor. Biol. 304:152–63 [Google Scholar]
  54. Loyce C, Meynard JM, Bouchard C, Rolland B, Lonnet P. 54.  et al. 2008. Interaction between cultivar and crop management effects on winter wheat diseases, lodging, and yield. Crop Prot 27:1131–42 [Google Scholar]
  55. Mahlein AK, Oerke EC, Steiner U, Dehne HW. 55.  2012. Recent advances in sensing plant diseases for precision crop protection. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 133:197–209 [Google Scholar]
  56. Mavroeidi VI, Shaw MW. 56.  2006. Effects of fungicide dose and mixtures on selection for triazole resistance in Mycosphaerella graminicola under field conditions. Plant Pathol 55:715–25 [Google Scholar]
  57. McDonald BA, Linde C. 57.  2002. Pathogen population genetics, evolutionary potential, and durable resistance. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 40:349–79 [Google Scholar]
  58. McDonald BA, Mundt CC. 58.  2016. How knowledge of pathogen population biology informs management of Septoria tritici blotch. Phytopathology 106:948–55 [Google Scholar]
  59. McDougall P. 59.  2014. Pesticide sales. Agribusiness Intelligence, Division of Informa PLC. https://www.phillipsmcdougall.com
  60. Metcalfe RJ, Shaw MW, Russell PE. 60.  2000. The effect of dose and mobility on the strength of selection for DMI fungicide resistance in inoculated field experiments. Plant Pathol 49:546–57 [Google Scholar]
  61. Milgroom MG, Fry WE. 61.  1988. A simulation analysis of the epidemiological principles for fungicide resistance management in pathogen populations. Phytopathology 78:565–70 [Google Scholar]
  62. Milne A, Paveley N, Audsley E, Livermore P. 62.  2003. A wheat canopy model for use in disease management decision support systems. Ann. Appl. Biol. 143:265–74 [Google Scholar]
  63. Milne A, Paveley N, Audsley E, Parsons D. 63.  2007. A model of the effect of fungicides on disease-induced yield loss, for use in wheat disease management decision support systems. Ann. Appl. Biol. 151:113–25 [Google Scholar]
  64. Neumann S, Paveley ND, Beed FD, Sylvester-Bradley R. 64.  2004. Nitrogen per unit leaf area affects the upper asymptote of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici epidemics in winter wheat. Plant Pathol. 53:725–32 [Google Scholar]
  65. Nutter FW, Teng PS, Royer MH. 65.  1993. Terms and concepts for yield, crop loss, and disease thresholds. Plant Dis 77:211–15 [Google Scholar]
  66. Nutter FW, Teng PS, Shokes FM. 66.  1991. Disease assessment terms and concepts. Plant Dis 75:1187–88 [Google Scholar]
  67. Oerke EC. 67.  2006. Crop losses to pests. J. Agric. Sci. 144:31–43 [Google Scholar]
  68. Offermann F, Nieberg H, Zander K. 68.  2009. Dependency of organic farms on direct payments in selected EU member states: today and tomorrow. Food Policy 34:273–79 [Google Scholar]
  69. Olsen S. 69.  2015. An analysis of the biopesticide market now and where it is going. Outlooks Pest Manag 26:5203–7 [Google Scholar]
  70. Parker SR, Welham S, Paveley ND, Foulkes J, Scott RK. 70.  2004. Tolerance of Septoria leaf blotch in winter wheat. Plant Pathol 53:1–10 [Google Scholar]
  71. Passioura JB. 71.  1996. Simulation models: science, snake oil, education, or engineering?. Agron. J. 88:690–94 [Google Scholar]
  72. Paveley N, Smith JA, Foulkes J. 72.  2008. Traits for reduced fungicide dependence. Proc. BSPP Pres. Meet., London Dec. 16–17 35–47 London: HGCA [Google Scholar]
  73. Paveley ND, Clark WS, Sylvester-Bradley R, Bryson RJ, Dampney P. 73.  1996. Responding to inter and intra-field variation to optimise foliar disease management wheat. Proc. Brighton Crop Prot. Conf. Pests Dis., Brighton, Novemb 18–21 1227–34 Brighton, UK: BCPC [Google Scholar]
  74. Paveley ND, Lockley D, Vaughan TB, Thomas J, Schmidt K. 74.  2000. Predicting effective fungicide doses through observation of leaf emergence. Plant Pathol 49:748–66 [Google Scholar]
  75. Paveley ND, Thomas JM, Vaughan TB, Havis ND, Jones DR. 75.  2003. Predicting effective doses for the joint action of two fungicide applications. Plant Pathol 52:638–47 [Google Scholar]
  76. Pietravalle S, Shaw MW, Parker SR, van den Bosch F. 76.  2003. Modeling of relationships between weather and Septoria tritici epidemics on winter wheat: a critical approach. Phytopathology 93:1329–39 [Google Scholar]
  77. Roberts JJ, Hendricks LT, Patterson FL. 77.  1984. Tolerance to leaf rust in susceptible wheat cultivars. Phytopathology 74:349–51 [Google Scholar]
  78. 78. SEGES. 2016. Nordic Field Trial System Aarhus, Den.: SEGES https://nfts.dlbr.dk/Forms/Forside.aspx [Google Scholar]
  79. Shaw M. 79.  2009. Fungicide resistance: the dose rate debate. Outlooks Pest Manag 20:100–3 [Google Scholar]
  80. Sierotzki H, Scalliet G. 80.  2013. A review of current knowledge of resistance aspects for the next-generation succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor fungicides. Phytopathology 103:880–87 [Google Scholar]
  81. Sierotzki H, Wullschleger J, Gisi U. 81.  2000. Point mutation in cytochrome b gene conferring resistance to strobilurin fungicides in Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici field isolates. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 68:107–12 [Google Scholar]
  82. Singh RP, Singh PK, Rutkoski J, Hodson DP, He X. 82.  et al. 2016. Disease impact on wheat yield potential and prospects of genetic control. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 54:302–22 [Google Scholar]
  83. Smith PJ, Webster JPG. 83.  1986. Farmers’ perceptions and the design of computerised advisory packages for disease control. Proc. Brighton Crop Prot. Conf. Pests Dis., Brighton Novemb. 13–16 1159–67 Farnham, UK: BCPC [Google Scholar]
  84. St. Clair DA. 84.  2010. Quantitative disease resistance and quantitative resistance loci in breeding. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 48:247–68 [Google Scholar]
  85. Stammler G, Semar M. 85.  2011. Sensitivity of Mycosphaerella graminicola (anamorph: Septoria tritici) to DMI fungicides across Europe and impact on field performance. EPPO Bull. 48:149–55 [Google Scholar]
  86. Staub T, Sozzi D. 86.  1983. Recent practical experiences with fungicide resistance. Proc. Int. Congress Plant Prot., Alton Novemb. 20–25 591–98 Farnham, UK: BCPC [Google Scholar]
  87. Stern VM, Smith RF, van den Bosch R, Hagen KS. 87.  1959. The integrated control concept. Higardia 29:81–101 [Google Scholar]
  88. te Beest DE, Shaw MW, Pietravalle S, van den Bosch F. 88.  2009. A predictive model for early warning of Septoria leaf blotch in winter wheat. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 124:413–25 [Google Scholar]
  89. te Beest DE, van den Bosch F. 89.  2007. Economic and environmental validation of disease risk prediction models. Phytopathology 97:S114 [Google Scholar]
  90. te Beest DE, Paveley ND, Shaw MW, van den Bosch F. 90.  2013. Accounting for the economic risk caused by variation in disease severity in fungicide dose decisions, exemplified for Mycosphaerella graminicola on winter wheat. Phytopathology 103:666–72 [Google Scholar]
  91. Teng PS. 91.  1985. A comparison of simulation approaches to epidemic modeling. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 23:351–79 [Google Scholar]
  92. Thomas MR, Cook RJ, King JE. 92.  1989. Factors affecting development of Septoria tritici in winter wheat and its effect on yield. Plant Pathol 38:246–57 [Google Scholar]
  93. Tyldesley JB, Thompson N. 93.  1980. Forecasting Septoria nodorum on winter wheat in England and Wales. Plant Pathol 29:9–20 [Google Scholar]
  94. van den Bosch F, Oliver R, van den Berg F, Paveley N. 94.  2014. Governing principles can guide fungicide-resistance management tactics. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 52:175–95 [Google Scholar]
  95. van den Bosch F, Paveley N, Shaw M, Hobbelen P, Oliver R. 95.  2011. The dose rate debate: Does the risk of fungicide resistance increase or decrease with dose?. Plant Pathol 60:597–606 [Google Scholar]
  96. Van den Plank JE. 96.  1963. Plant Diseases: Epidemics and Control London, UK: Academic [Google Scholar]
  97. Verreet JA, Klink H, Hoffmann GM. 97.  2000. Regional monitoring for disease prediction and optimization of plant protection measures: the IPM wheat model. Plant Dis 84:816–26 [Google Scholar]
  98. Volk TJA, Newe M, Meier H. 98.  2003. proPlant expert.com: the online consultation system on crop protection in cereals, rapeseed, potatoes and sugar beet. Bull. OEPP/EPPO Bull. 33:3443–49 [Google Scholar]
  99. Waggoner PE, Berger RD. 99.  1987. Defoliation, disease and growth. Phytopathology 77:393–98 [Google Scholar]
  100. Wegulo SN, Zwingman MV, Breathnach JA, Baenziger PS. 100.  2011. Economic returns from fungicide application to control foliar fungal diseases in winter wheat. Crop Prot 30:685–92 [Google Scholar]
  101. Weiberg A, Wang M, Lin FM, Zhao HW, Zhang ZH. 101.  et al. 2013. Fungal small RNAs suppress plant immunity by hijacking host RNA interference pathways. Science 342:118–23 [Google Scholar]
  102. Wieczorek TM, Berg G, Semaskiene R, Mehl A, Sierotzki H. 102.  et al. 2015. Impact of DMI and SDHI fungicides on disease control and CYP51 mutations in populations of Zymoseptoria tritici from Northern Europe. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 143:861–71 [Google Scholar]
  103. Wiik L, Rosenqvist H. 103.  2010. The economics of fungicide use in winter wheat in southern Sweden. Crop Prot 29:11–19 [Google Scholar]
  104. Xu XM, Jeffries P, Pautasso M, Jeger MJ. 104.  2011. Combined use of biocontrol agents to manage plant diseases in theory and practice. Phytopathology 101:1024–31 [Google Scholar]
  105. Young CS, Thomas JM, Parker SR, Paveley ND. 105.  2006. Relationship between leaf emergence and optimum spray timing for leaf blotch (Rhynchosporium secalis) control on winter barley. Plant Pathol 55:413–20 [Google Scholar]
  106. Zadoks JC. 106.  1985. On the conceptual basis of crop loss assessments: the threshold theory. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 23:455–73 [Google Scholar]
  107. Zuckerman E, Eshel A, Eyal Z. 107.  1997. Physiological aspects related to tolerance of spring wheat cultivars to Septoria tritici blotch. Phytopathology 87:60–65 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-phyto-080516-035357
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-phyto-080516-035357
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplementary Data

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error