1932

Abstract

The initial optimism that greeted the onset of the “Third Wave” of democratization has cooled with the instability of many new democracies and the proliferation of stable competitive authoritarian regimes. These disappointments have produced a return to structural theories emphasizing the constraints posed by underdevelopment, resource endowments, inequality, and ethno-religious cleavages. We argue, however, for a sharper focus on the political mechanisms that link such factors to the emergence of democracy, including the extent of institutionalization in new democracies and the still understudied role of civil society and the capacity for collective action. The international dimensions of democratization also require closer analysis. We also underline a methodological point: The quest for an overarching theory of democracy and democratization may be misguided. Generalizations supported by cross-national statistical work yield numerous anomalies and indicate the need for approaches that emphasize combinations of causal factors, alternative pathways, and equifinality.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-042114-015137
2016-05-11
2024-12-12
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/polisci/19/1/annurev-polisci-042114-015137.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-042114-015137&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Acemoglu D, Naidu S, Restrepo P, Robinson J. 2013. Democracy, public policy, and inequality. Comp. Democr. Newsl. 11:32, 16–20 [Google Scholar]
  2. Acemoglu D, Robinson JA. 2006. Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  3. Ahlquist JS, Wibbels E. 2012. Riding the wave: world trade and factor-based models of democratization. Am. J. Polit. Sci. 56:2447–64 [Google Scholar]
  4. Alesina A, Develeeschauwer A, Easterly W, Kurlat S, Wacziarg R. 2003. Fractionalization. J. Econ. Growth 8:155–94 [Google Scholar]
  5. Alesina A, Drazen A. 1991. Why are stabilizations delayed?. Am. Econ. Rev. 81:51170–88 [Google Scholar]
  6. Alvarez M, Cheibub JA, Limongi F, Przeworski A. 1996. Classifying political regimes. Stud. Comp. Int. Dev. 31:23–36 [Google Scholar]
  7. Andersen JJ, Ross ML. 2013. The big oil change: a closer look at the Haber-Menaldo analysis. Comp. Polit. Stud. 47:7993–1021 [Google Scholar]
  8. Ansell B, Samuels D. 2014. Inequality and Democratization: An Elite-Competition Approach New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  9. Arriola L. 2012. Multiethnic Coalitions in Africa: Business Financing of Opposition Election Campaigns New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  10. Baturo A. 2014. Democracy, Dictatorship and Term Limits Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press [Google Scholar]
  11. Bermeo N. 2003. Ordinary People in Extraordinary Times: The Citizenry and the Breakdown of Democracy Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  12. Boix C. 2003. Democracy and Redistribution New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  13. Boix C. 2011. Democracy, development, and the international system. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 105:4809–28 [Google Scholar]
  14. Boix C. 2013. RMDs. Comp. Democr. Newsl. 11:32, 12–15 [Google Scholar]
  15. Boix C, Miller M, Rosato S. 2013. A complete data set of political regimes, 1800–2007. Comp. Polit. Stud. 46:121523–54 [Google Scholar]
  16. Boix C, Stokes S. 2003. Endogenous democratization. World Polit. 55:517–49 [Google Scholar]
  17. Brancati D, Snyder J. 2013. Time to kill: the impact of election timing on postconflict stability. J. Confl. Resolut. 57:5822–53 [Google Scholar]
  18. Brinks D, Coppedge M. 2006. Diffusion is no illusion: neighbor emulation in the Third Wave of democracy. Comp. Polit. Stud. 39:463–89 [Google Scholar]
  19. Brownlee J. 2009. Portents of pluralism: how hybrid regimes affect democratic transitions. Am. J. Polit. Sci. 53:3515–32 [Google Scholar]
  20. Bunce V. 2003. Rethinking recent democratization: lessons from the postcommunist experience. World Polit. 55:2167–92 [Google Scholar]
  21. Bunce V, Wolchik SL. 2013. Bringing down dictators: waves of democratic change in communist and post-communist Europe. Why Communism Did Not Collapse MK Dimitrov 123–48 New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  22. Burke P, Leigh A. 2010. Do output contractions trigger democratic change?. Am. Econ. J. Macroecon. 2:124–57 [Google Scholar]
  23. Carey JM. 2000. Parchment, equilibria, and institutions. Comp. Polit. Stud. 33:6–7735–61 [Google Scholar]
  24. Carothers T. 2002. The end of the transition paradigm. J. Democr. 13:15–21 [Google Scholar]
  25. Carothers T. 2007. The “sequencing” fallacy. J. Democr. 18:112–27 [Google Scholar]
  26. Casper G, Tufis C. 2003. Correlations versus interchangeability: the limited robustness of empirical findings on democracy using highly correlated datasets. Polit. Anal. 11:196–203 [Google Scholar]
  27. Cederman L-E, Gleditsch KS, Buhaug H. 2013. Inequality, Grievances, and Civil War New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  28. Cheeseman N. 2010. African elections as vehicles for change. J. Democr. 21:4139–53 [Google Scholar]
  29. Cheeseman N. 2015. Democracy in Africa: Successes, Failures, and the Struggle for Political Reform New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  30. Cheibub JA. 2007. Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, and Democracy New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  31. Cheibub JA, Gandhi J, Vreeland JR. 2010. Democracy and dictatorship revisited. Public Choice 143:67–101 [Google Scholar]
  32. Cheibub JA, Limongi F. 2002. Democratic institutions and regime survival: parliamentary and presidential democracies reconsidered. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 5:151–79 [Google Scholar]
  33. Chenoweth E, Stephan MJ. 2011. Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict New York: Columbia Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  34. Clark JF. 2007. The decline of the African military coup. J. Democr. 18:3141–55 [Google Scholar]
  35. Cohen Y. 1994. Radicals, Reformers, and Reactionaries: The Prisoner's Dilemma and the Collapse of Democracy in Latin America. Chicago: Chicago Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  36. Collier R. 1999. Paths Toward Democracy: The Working Class and Elites in Western Europe and South America New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  37. Colomer JM. 2000. Strategic Transition: Game Theory and Democratization Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  38. Di Palma G. 1990. To Craft Democracies Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press [Google Scholar]
  39. Diamond L. 2002. Thinking about hybrid regimes. J. Democr. 13:221–35 [Google Scholar]
  40. Diamond L. 2009. The Spirit of Democracy: The Struggle to Build Free Societies Throughout the World New York: St. Martin's Griffin [Google Scholar]
  41. Dimitrov MK. 2013. Why Communism Did Not Collapse New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  42. Dobbin F, Garrett G, Simmons B. 2008. The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  43. Dunning T. 2008. Crude Democracy: Natural Resource Wealth and Political Regimes Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  44. Eisenstadt T. 2004. Courting Democracy in Mexico: Party Strategies and Electoral Institutions New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  45. Ekiert G, Kubik J. 1998. Contentious politics in new democracies: East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia, 1989–1993. World Polit. 50:4547–81 [Google Scholar]
  46. Ekiert G, Kubik J. 1999. Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press [Google Scholar]
  47. Elkins Z. 2000. Gradations of democracy? Empirical tests of alternative conceptualizations. Am. J. Polit. Sci. 44:2293–300 [Google Scholar]
  48. Epstein DL, Bates R, Goldstone J, Kristensen I, O'Halloran S. 2006. Democratic transitions. Am. J. Polit. Sci. 50:551–69 [Google Scholar]
  49. Epstein L, Knight J, Shvetsova O. 2001. The role of constitutional courts in the establishment and maintenance of democratic systems of government. Law Soc. Rev. 35:1117–64 [Google Scholar]
  50. Feaver P. 1999. Civil-military relations. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 2:211–41 [Google Scholar]
  51. Fish MS. 2006. Stronger legislatures, stronger democracies. J. Democr. 17:15–20 [Google Scholar]
  52. Fish MS, Brooks RS. 2004. Does diversity hurt democracy?. J. Democr. 15:1154–66 [Google Scholar]
  53. Fish MS, Kroenig M. 2006. Diversity, conflict and democracy: some evidence from Eurasia and East Europe. Democratization 13:5828–42 [Google Scholar]
  54. Flores TE, Nooruddin I. 2012. The effect of elections on postconflict peace and reconstruction. J. Polit. 74:2558–70 [Google Scholar]
  55. Fortin J. 2012. Is there a necessary condition for democracy? The role of state capacity in postcommunist countries. Comp. Polit. Stud. 45:7903–30 [Google Scholar]
  56. Freeman JR, Quinn DP. 2012. The economic origins of democracy reconsidered. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 106:158–80 [Google Scholar]
  57. Fukuyama F. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man New York: Penguin [Google Scholar]
  58. Fukuyama F. 2013. What is governance?. Governance 26:3347–68 [Google Scholar]
  59. Gandhi J. 2008. Political Institutions Under Dictatorship New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  60. Gandhi J, Przeworski A. 2007. Authoritarian institutions and the survival of autocrats. Comp. Polit. Stud. 40:111279–301 [Google Scholar]
  61. Garreton Merino MA. 1995. Redemocratization in Chile. J. Democr. 6:1146–58 [Google Scholar]
  62. Gasiorowski MJ. 1995. Economic crisis and political regime change: an event history analysis. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 89:4882–97 [Google Scholar]
  63. Geddes B. 1999. What do we know about democracy after twenty years?. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 2:115–44 [Google Scholar]
  64. Ginsburg T. 2003. Judicial Review in New Democracies: Constitutional Courts in Asian Cases New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  65. Gleditsch KS, Ward MD. 2006. Diffusion and the international context of democratization. Int. Organ. 60:4911–33 [Google Scholar]
  66. Gleditsch NP, Christiansen LS, Hegre H. 2007. Democratic jihad? Military intervention and democracy World Bank Policy Res. Work. Pap. 4242, World Bank, Washington, DC [Google Scholar]
  67. Goemans HE, Gleditsch KS, Chiozza G. 2009. Archigos. A data set on leaders 1875–2004. Univ. Rochester, New York. http://www.rochester.edu/college/faculty/hgoemans/Archigos.2.9-August.pdf
  68. Gunitsky S. 2014. From shocks to waves: hegemonic transitions and democratization in the twentieth century. Int. Organ. 68:3561–97 [Google Scholar]
  69. Haber S, Menaldo V. 2011. Do natural resources fuel authoritarianism? A reappraisal of the resource curse. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 105:11–26 [Google Scholar]
  70. Hadenius A, Teorell J. 2007. Pathways from authoritarianism. J. Democr. 18:1143–57 [Google Scholar]
  71. Hafner-Burton EM. 2009. Forced to Be Good: Why Trade Agreements Boost Human Rights Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  72. Haggard S. 2014. Liberal pessimism: international relations theory and the emerging powers. Asia-Pac. Policy Stud. 1:11–17 [Google Scholar]
  73. Haggard S, Kaufman R. 1995. The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  74. Haggard S, Kaufman R. 2012. Inequality and regime change: democratic transitions and the stability of democratic rule. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 106:3495–516 [Google Scholar]
  75. Haggard S, Kaufman R. 2016. Dictators and Democrats: Masses, Elites and Regime Change Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  76. Haggard S, Kaufman R, Teo T. 2012. Distributive conflict and regime change: a qualitative dataset Work. pap. http://hdl.handle.net/1902.1/18276 [Google Scholar]
  77. Haggard S, McCubbins MD. 2001. Presidents, Parliaments, and Policy New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  78. Haggard S, Tiede L. 2014. The rule of law in post-conflict settings: the empirical record. Int. Stud. Q. 58:405–17 [Google Scholar]
  79. Higley J, Burton MG. 1989. The elite variable in democratic transitions and breakdowns. Am. Sociol. Rev. 54:17–32 [Google Scholar]
  80. Horowitz D. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press [Google Scholar]
  81. Horowitz D. 1994. Democracy in divided societies. Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict & Democracy L Diamond, MF Plattner 35–55 Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  82. Houle C. 2009. Inequality and democracy: why inequality harms consolidation but does not affect democratization. World Polit. 61:589–622 [Google Scholar]
  83. Huntington SP. 1968. Political Order in Changing Societies New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  84. Huntington SP. 1991. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century Norman: Univ. Okla. Press [Google Scholar]
  85. Kapstein E, Converse N. 2008a. The Fate of Young Democracies New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  86. Kapstein E, Converse N. 2008b. Why democracies fail. J. Democr. 19:457–68 [Google Scholar]
  87. Karl TL. 1990. Dilemmas of democratization in Latin America. Comp. Polit. 32:11–21 [Google Scholar]
  88. Kendall-Taylor A, Frantz E. 2014. How autocracies fall. Wash. Q. 37:135–47 [Google Scholar]
  89. Kennedy R. 2010. The contradiction of modernization: a conditional model of endogenous democratization. J. Polit. 72:3785–98 [Google Scholar]
  90. Kramer M. 2013. The dynamics of diffusion in the Soviet bloc and the impact on regime survival. Why Communism Did Not Collapse MK Dimitrov 149–84 New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  91. Kuran T. 1989. Sparks and prairie fires: a theory of unanticipated political revolution. Public Choice 61:41–74 [Google Scholar]
  92. Kurtz MJ, Brooks SM. 2011. Conditioning the “resource curse”: globalization, human capital, and growth in oil-rich nations. Comp. Polit. Stud. 44:6747–70 [Google Scholar]
  93. Lake DA, Rothchild D. 1996. Containing fear: the origins and management of ethnic conflict. Int. Secur. 21:241–75 [Google Scholar]
  94. Lehoucq F, Pérez-Liñán A. 2009. Regimes, competition, and military coups in Latin America. Presented at Annu. Meet. Am. Polit. Sci. Assoc., 105th, Toronto [Google Scholar]
  95. Lehoucq F, Pérez-Liñán A. 2013. Breaking out of the coup trap: political competition and military coups in Latin America. Comp. Polit. Stud. 47:81105–29 [Google Scholar]
  96. Levitsky S, Murillo MV. 2009. Variation in institutional strength. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 12:115–33 [Google Scholar]
  97. Levitsky S, Way LA. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  98. Lijphart A. 1990. The power-sharing approach. Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies JV Montville 491–509 New York: Free Press [Google Scholar]
  99. Lijphart A. 2004. Constitutional design for divided societies. J. Democr. 15:296–109 [Google Scholar]
  100. Linz JJ. 1994. Presidential or parliamentary democracy: Does it make a difference?. The Failure of Presidential Democracy: Comparative Perspectives JJ Linz, A Valenzuela 3–87 Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  101. Linz JJ, Stepan A. 1996. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  102. Lipset SM. 1959. Some social requisites of democracy: economic development and political legitimacy. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 53:69–105 [Google Scholar]
  103. Lipset SM. 1960. Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics New York: Doubleday [Google Scholar]
  104. Lohmann S. 1994. The dynamics of informational cascades: the Monday demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989–91. World Polit. 47:142–101 [Google Scholar]
  105. Londregan JB, Poole KT. 1990. Poverty, the coup trap, and the seizure of executive power. World Polit. 42:151–83 [Google Scholar]
  106. Maeda K. 2010. Two modes of democratic breakdown: a competing risks analysis of democratic durability. J. Polit. 72:41129–43 [Google Scholar]
  107. Magaloni B. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and Its Demise in Mexico New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  108. Magaloni B, Kricheli R. 2010. Political order and one-party rule. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 13:123–43 [Google Scholar]
  109. Mahoney J. 2001. The Legacies of Liberalism: Path Dependence and Political Regimes in Central America New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  110. Mainwaring S, Brinks D, Pérez-Liñán A. 2001. Classifying political regimes in Latin America, 1945–1999. Stud. Comp. Int. Dev. 36:137–65 [Google Scholar]
  111. Mainwaring S, Pérez-Liñán A. 2014. Democracies and Dictatorships in Latin America: Emergence, Survival, and Fall Pittsburgh, PA: Univ. Pittsburgh Press [Google Scholar]
  112. Mainwaring S, Shugart M. 1997. Conclusion: presidentialism and the party system. Presidentialism and Democracy in Latin America S Mainwaring, M Shugart 394–439 New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  113. Maltz G. 2007. The case for presidential term limits. J. Democr. 18:1128–42 [Google Scholar]
  114. Mansfield ED, Pevehouse JC. 2006. Democratization and international organizations. Int. Organ. 60:1137–67 [Google Scholar]
  115. Mansfield ED, Snyder J. 1995. Democratization and the danger of war. Int. Secur. 20:15–38 [Google Scholar]
  116. Mansfield ED, Snyder J. 2005. Electing to Fight: Why New Democracies Go to War Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  117. Mansfield ED, Snyder J. 2007. The sequencing “fallacy.”. J. Democr. 18:35–10 [Google Scholar]
  118. Marshall MG, Jaggers K, Gurr TR. 2010. Polity IV Data Series Version 2010. Univ. MD, College Park. http://www.systemicpeace.org/polity/polity4.htm
  119. Moore B Jr. 1966. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World Boston: Beacon [Google Scholar]
  120. Norris P. 2008. Driving Democracy: Do Power-Sharing Institutions Work? New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  121. Ottaway M. 2003. Promoting democracy after conflict: the difficult choices. Int. Stud. Perspect. 4:3314–22 [Google Scholar]
  122. Ottaway M, Carothers T. 2000. Funding Virtue: Civil Society Aid and Democracy Promotion Washington, DC: Carnegie Endow. Int. Peace [Google Scholar]
  123. Pevehouse JC. 2002. Democracy from the outside-in? International organizations and democratization. Int. Organ. 56:515–49 [Google Scholar]
  124. Poast P, Urpelainen J. 2015. How international organizations support democratization: preventing authoritarian reversals or promoting consolidation?. World Polit. 67:172–113 [Google Scholar]
  125. Posner DN, Young DJ. 2007. The institutionalization of political power in Africa. J. Democr. 18:3126–40 [Google Scholar]
  126. Power TJ, Gasiorski MJ. 1997. Institutional design and democratic consolidation in the Third World. Comp. Polit. Stud. 30:2123–55 [Google Scholar]
  127. Przeworski A. 1991. Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  128. Przeworski A, Alvarez M, Cheibub JA, Limongi F. 1996. What makes democracies endure?. J. Democr. 7:39–55 [Google Scholar]
  129. Przeworski A, Cheibub J, Limongi F. 2000. Democracy and Development New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  130. Reilly B. 2001. Democracy in Divided Societies: Electoral Engineering for Conflict Management New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  131. Reilly B. 2011. Centripetalism. Routledge Handbook of Ethnic Conflict K Cordell, S Wolff 288–99 New York: Routledge [Google Scholar]
  132. Rose R, Shin DC. 2001. Democratization backwards: the problem of third wave democracies. Br. J. Polit. Sci. 31:331–54 [Google Scholar]
  133. Ross M. 2001. Does oil hinder democracy?. World Polit. 53:325–61 [Google Scholar]
  134. Ross M. 2013. The Oil Curse: How Petroleum Wealth Shapes the Development of Nations Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  135. Rueschemeyer D. 2004. Addressing inequality. J. Democr. 15:476–90 [Google Scholar]
  136. Rueschemeyer D, Stephens EH, Stephens JD. 1992. Capitalist Development and Democracy Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  137. Rustow DA. 1970. Transitions to democracy: toward a dynamic model. Comp. Polit. 2:3337–63 [Google Scholar]
  138. Saideman SM, Lanoue DJ, Campenni M, Stanton S. 2002. Democratization, political institutions, and ethnic conflict: a pooled time-series analysis, 1985–1998. Comp. Polit. Stud. 35:1103–29 [Google Scholar]
  139. Schedler A. 2009. Electoral authoritarianism. Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Interdisciplinary, Searchable, and Linkable Resource RA Scott, SM Kosslyn. Wiley Online Library. doi: 10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0098 [Google Scholar]
  140. Schedler A. 1999. The Self-Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publ. [Google Scholar]
  141. Schedler A. 2002. The menu of manipulation. J. Democr. 13:236–50 [Google Scholar]
  142. Schmitter PC, O'Donnell G. 1986. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  143. Shugart MS, Carey JM. 1992. Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  144. Sing M. 2010. Explaining democratic survival globally (1946–2002). J. Polit. 72:2438–55 [Google Scholar]
  145. Solt F, Habel P, Grant JT. 2011. Economic inequality, relative power, and religiosity. Soc. Sci. Q. 92:2447–65 [Google Scholar]
  146. Stokes S, Dunning T, Nazareno M, Brusco V. 2013. Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism: The Puzzle of Distributive Politics New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  147. Svolik M. 2008. Authoritarian reversals and democratic consolidation. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 102:153–68 [Google Scholar]
  148. Svolik M. 2012. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  149. Teorell J. 2010. Determinants of Democratization: Explaining Regime Change in the World, 1972–2006 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  150. Tufekci Z, Freelon D. 2013. Introduction to the special issue on new media and social unrest. Am. Behav. Sci. 57:843–47 [Google Scholar]
  151. Tufekci Z, Wilson C. 2012. Social media and the decision to participate in political protest: observations from Tahrir Square. J. Commun. 62:2363–79 [Google Scholar]
  152. Vanhanen T. 2003. FSD1216 Democratization and power resources 1850–2000. Finn. Soc. Sci. Data Arch., Dep. Polit. Sci., Univ. Tampere, Finl., retrieved Oct. 5, 2015. https://services.fsd.uta.fi/catalogue/FSD1216?lang=en&study_language=en
  153. Weitz-Shapiro R. 2014. Curbing Clientelism in Argentina New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  154. Wejner B. 2005. Diffusion, development, and democracy, 1800–1999. Am. Sociol. Rev. 70:53–81 [Google Scholar]
  155. Whitehead L. 2015. Anti-democracy promotion: four strategies in search of a framework. Taiwan J. Democr. 10:21–24 [Google Scholar]
  156. Wood EJ. 2000. Forging Democracy from Below: Insurgent Transitions in South Africa and El Salvador New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  157. Zakaria F. 1997. The rise of illiberal democracy. Foreign Aff. 76:622–43 [Google Scholar]
  158. Zakaria F. 2007. The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad New York: WW Norton. Rev. ed. [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-042114-015137
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error