Climate Sensitivity in the Geologic Past

Literature Cited

1. Abbot DS. , Huber M. , Bousquet G. , Walker CC. . 2009.. High-CO₂ cloud radiative forcing feedback over both land and ocean in a global climate model. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 36::L05702 [Google Scholar]
2. Abbot DS. , Tziperman E. . 2008a.. A high-latitude convective cloud feedback and equable climates. . Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 134::165–85 [Google Scholar]
3. Abbot DS. , Tziperman E. . 2008b.. Sea ice, high-latitude convection, and equable climates. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 35::L03702 [Google Scholar]
4. Archer D. , Brovkin V. . 2008.. The millennial atmospheric lifetime of anthropogenic CO₂. . Clim. Change 90::283–97 [Google Scholar]
5. Armour KC. , Roe GH. . 2011.. Climate commitment in an uncertain world. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 38::L01707 [Google Scholar]
6. Arrhenius S. . 1896.. On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature on the ground. . Philos. Mag. J. Sci. 41::237–75 [Google Scholar]
7. Barron EJ. , Fawcett PJ. , Pollard D. , Thompson S. . 1993.. Model simulations of Cretaceous climates: the role of geography and carbon dioxide. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 341::307–16 [Google Scholar]
8. Barron EJ. , Thompson SL. , Schneider SH. . 1981.. An ice-free Cretaceous? Results from climate model simulations. . Science 212::501–8 [Google Scholar]
9. Beerling DJ. , Fox A. , Anderson CW. . 2009.. Quantitative uncertainty analyses of ancient atmospheric CO₂ estimates from fossil leaves. . Am. J. Sci. 309::775–87 [Google Scholar]
10. Beerling DJ. , Fox A. , Stevenson DS. , Valdes PJ. . 2011.. Enhanced chemistry-climate feedbacks in past greenhouse worlds. . PNAS 108::9770–75 [Google Scholar]
11. Beerling DJ. , Royer DL. . 2011.. Convergent Cenozoic CO₂ history. . Nat. Geosci. 4::418–20 [Google Scholar]
12. Bice KL. , Scotese CR. , Seidov D. , Barron EJ. . 2000.. Quantifying the role of geographic change in Cenozoic ocean heat transport using uncoupled atmosphere and ocean models. . Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 161::295–310 [Google Scholar]
13. Bijl PK. , Houben AJP. , Schouten S. , Bohaty SM. , Sluijs A. , et al. 2010.. Transient middle Eocene atmospheric CO₂ and temperature variations. . Science 330::819–21 [Google Scholar]
14. Borzenkova II. . 2003.. Determination of global climate sensitivity to the gas composition of the atmosphere from paleoclimatic data. . Izv. Atmos. Ocean. Phys. 39::197–202 [Google Scholar]
15. Bowen GJ. . 2013.. Up in smoke: a role for organic carbon feedbacks in Paleogene hyperthermals. . Glob. Planet. Change 109::18–29 [Google Scholar]
16. Bowen GJ. , Maibauer BJ. , Kraus MJ. , Rohl U. , Westerhold T. , et al. 2015.. Two massive, rapid releases of carbon during the onset of the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. . Nat. Geosci. 8::44–47 [Google Scholar]
17. Bradshaw CD. , Lunt DJ. , Flecker R. , Davies-Barnard T. . 2015.. Disentangling the roles of late Miocene palaeogeography and vegetation—implications for climate sensitivity. . Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 417::17–34 [Google Scholar]
18. Breecker DO. . 2013.. Quantifying and understanding the uncertainty of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations determined from calcic paleosols. . Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 14::3210–20 [Google Scholar]
19. Breecker DO. , Retallack GJ. . 2014.. Refining the pedogenic carbonate atmospheric CO₂ proxy and application to Miocene CO₂. . Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 406::1–8 [Google Scholar]
20. Breecker DO. , Sharp ZD. , McFadden LD. . 2010.. Atmospheric CO₂ concentrations during ancient greenhouse climates were similar to those predicted for A. D. 2100. . PNAS 107::576–80 [Google Scholar]
21. Budyko MI. , Ronov AB. , Yanshin AL. . 1987.. History of the Earth's Atmosphere. Berlin:: Springer-Verlag [Google Scholar]
22. Caballero R. , Huber M. . 2013.. State-dependent climate sensitivity in past warm climates and its implications for future climate projections. . PNAS 110::14162–67 [Google Scholar]
23. Caldeira K. , Wickett ME. . 2003.. Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH. . Nature 425::365 [Google Scholar]
24. Came RE. , Eiler JM. , Veizer J. , Azmy K. , Brand U. , Weidman CR. . 2007.. Coupling of surface temperatures and atmospheric CO₂ concentrations during the Palaeozoic era. . Nature 449::198–201 [Google Scholar]
25. Charney JG. , Arakawa A. , Baker DJ. , Bolin B. , Dickinson RE. , et al. 1979.. Carbon Dioxide and Climate: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, DC:: Natl. Acad. Sci. [Google Scholar]
26. Colman R. , McAvaney B. . 2009.. Climate feedbacks under a very broad range of forcing. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 36::L01702 [Google Scholar]
27. Covey C. , Sloan LC. , Hoffert MI. . 1996.. Paleoclimate data constraints on climate sensitivity: the paleocalibration method. . Clim. Change 32::165–84 [Google Scholar]
28. Cramer BS. , Toggweiler JR. , Wright JD. , Katz ME. , Miller KG. . 2009.. Ocean overturning since the Late Cretaceous: inferences from a new benthic foraminiferal isotope compilation. . Paleoceanography 24::PA4216 [Google Scholar]
29. Cui Y. , Kump LR. , Ridgwell AJ. , Charles AJ. , Junium CK. , et al. 2011.. Slow release of fossil carbon during the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. . Nat. Geosci. 4::481–85 [Google Scholar]
30. DeConto RM. , Brady EC. , Bergengren J. , Hay WW. . 2000.. Late Cretaceous climate, vegetation, and ocean interactions. . In Warm Climates in Earth History, ed. BT Huber, KG MacLeod, SL Wing , pp. 275–96. Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
31. Deenen MHL. , Ruhl M. , Bonis NR. , Krijgsman W. , Kuerschner WM. , et al. 2010.. A new chronology for the end-Triassic mass extinction. . Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 291::113–25 [Google Scholar]
32. Donnadieu Y. , Pierrehumbert R. , Jacob R. , Fluteau F. . 2006.. Modelling the primary control of paleogeography on Cretaceous climate. . Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 248::426–37 [Google Scholar]
33. Dunkley Jones T. , Lunt DJ. , Schmidt DN. , Ridgwell A. , Sluijs A. , et al. 2013.. Climate model and proxy data constraints on ocean warming across the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. . Earth-Sci. Rev. 125::123–45 [Google Scholar]
34. Dunkley Jones T. , Ridgwell A. , Lunt DJ. , Maslin MA. , Schmidt DN. , Valdes PJ. . 2010.. A Palaeogene perspective on climate sensitivity and methane hydrate instability. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 368::2395–415 [Google Scholar]
35. Dutton JE. , Barron EJ. . 1997.. Miocene to present vegetation changes: a possible piece of the Cenozoic cooling puzzle. . Geology 25::39–41 [Google Scholar]
36. Falkowski P. , Scholes RJ. , Boyle E. , Canadell J. , Canfield D. , et al. 2000.. The global carbon cycle: a test of our knowledge of Earth as a system. . Science 290::291–96 [Google Scholar]
37. Fedorov AV. , Brierley CM. , Lawrence KT. , Liu Z. , Dekens PS. , Ravelo AC. . 2013.. Patterns and mechanisms of early Pliocene warmth. . Nature 496::43–49 [Google Scholar]
38. Finnegan S. , Bergmann K. , Eiler JM. , Jones DS. , Fike DA. , et al. 2011.. The magnitude and duration of Late Ordovician-early Silurian glaciation. . Science 331::903–6 [Google Scholar]
39. Foster GL. , Royer DL. , Lunt DJ. . 2014.. Past and future CO₂: reconstructing atmospheric carbon dioxide. . http://descentintotheicehouse.org.uk/past-and-future-co2/
40. Franks PJ. , Royer DL. , Beerling DJ. , Van de Water PK. , Cantrill DJ. , et al. 2014.. New constraints on atmospheric CO₂ concentration for the Phanerozoic. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 41::4685–94 [Google Scholar]
41. Friedlingstein P. , Solomon S. , Plattner GK. , Knutti R. , Ciais P. , Raupach MR. . 2011.. Long-term climate implications of twenty-first century options for carbon dioxide emission mitigation. . Nat. Clim. Change 1::457–61 [Google Scholar]
42. Gillett NP. , Arora VK. , Zickfeld K. , Marshall SJ. , Merryfield WJ. . 2011.. Ongoing climate change following a complete cessation of carbon dioxide emissions. . Nat. Geosci. 4::83–87 [Google Scholar]
43. Gingerich PD. . 2006.. Environment and evolution through the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. . Trends Ecol. Evol. 21::246–53 [Google Scholar]
44. Goldner A. , Huber M. , Caballero R. . 2013.. Does Antarctic glaciation cool the world?. Clim. Past 9::173–89 [Google Scholar]
45. Golledge NR. , Kowalewski DE. , Naish TR. , Levy RH. , Fogwill CJ. , Gasson EGW. . 2015.. The multi-millennial Antarctic commitment to future sea-level rise. . Nature 526::421–25 [Google Scholar]
46. Gough DO. . 1981.. Solar interior structure and luminosity variations. . Solar Phys. 74::21–34 [Google Scholar]
47. Greene SE. , Martindale RC. , Ritterbush KA. , Bottjer DJ. , Corsetti FA. , Berelson WM. . 2012.. Recognising ocean acidification in deep time: an evaluation of the evidence for acidification across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary. . Earth-Sci. Rev. 113::72–93 [Google Scholar]
48. Greenop R. , Foster GL. , Wilson PA. , Lear CH. . 2014.. Middle Miocene climate instability associated with high-amplitude CO₂ variability. . Paleoceanography 29::845–53 [Google Scholar]
49. Grossman EL. . 2012.. Oxygen isotope stratigraphy. . In The Geologic Timescale 2012, ed. FM Gradstein, JG Ogg, MD Schmitz, GM Ogg , pp. 181–206. Amsterdam:: Elsevier [Google Scholar]
50. Hansen J. , Kharecha P. , Sato M. , Masson-Delmotte V. , Ackerman F. , et al. 2013a.. Assessing “dangerous climate change”: required reduction of carbon emissions to protect young people, future generations and nature. . PLOS ONE 8::e81648 [Google Scholar]
51. Hansen J. , Sato M. . 2012.. Paleoclimate implications for human-made climate change. . In Climate Change: Inferences for Paleoclimate and Regional Aspects, ed. A Berger, F Mesinger, D Šijački , pp. 21–47. Wien:: Springer [Google Scholar]
52. Hansen J. , Sato M. , Kharecha P. , Beerling D. , Berner R. , et al. 2008.. Target atmospheric CO₂: Where should humanity aim?. Open Atmos. Sci. J. 2::217–31Calculation of Earth-system sensitivity for the Pleistocene. [Google Scholar]
53. Hansen J. , Sato M. , Ruedy R. , Nazarenko L. , Lacis A. , et al. 2005.. Efficacy of climate forcings. . J. Geophys. Res. 110::D18104 [Google Scholar]
54. Hansen J. , Sato M. , Russell G. , Kharecha P. . 2013b.. Climate sensitivity, sea level and atmospheric carbon dioxide. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 371::20120294 [Google Scholar]
55. Haywood AM. , Hill DJ. , Dolan AM. , Otto-Bliesner BL. , Bragg F. , et al. 2013.. Large-scale features of Pliocene climate: results from the Pliocene Model Intercomparison Project. . Clim. Past 9::191–209A meta-analysis of Pliocene climate simulations. [Google Scholar]
56. Heinemann M. , Jungclaus JH. , Marotzke J. . 2009.. Warm Paleocene/Eocene climate as simulated in ECHAM5/MPI-OM. . Clim. Past 5::785–802 [Google Scholar]
57. Hill DJ. . 2015.. The non-analogue nature of Pliocene temperature gradients. . Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 425::232–41 [Google Scholar]
58. Hoffert MI. , Covey C. . 1992.. Deriving global climate sensitivity from palaeoclimate reconstructions. . Nature 360::573–76 [Google Scholar]
59. Huber M. , Caballero R. . 2011.. The early Eocene equable climate problem revisited. . Clim. Past 7::603–33 [Google Scholar]
60. IPCC. 2013.. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. . Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. TF Stocker, D Qin, G-K Plattner, M Tignor, SK Allen , et al. Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
61. IPCC. 2014.. Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. . Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. O Edenhofer, R Pichs-Madruga, Y Sokona, JC Minx, E Farahani , et al. Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
62. Joughin I. , Smith BE. , Medley B. . 2014.. Marine ice sheet collapse potentially under way for the Thwaites Glacier Basin, West Antarctica. . Science 344::735–38 [Google Scholar]
63. Kasprak AH. , Sepúlveda J. , Price-Waldman R. , Williford KH. , Schoepfer SD. , et al. 2015.. Episodic photic zone euxinia in the northeastern Panthalassic Ocean during the end-Triassic extinction. . Geology 43::307–10 [Google Scholar]
64. Kiehl JT. . 2011.. Lessons from Earth's past. . Science 331::158–59 [Google Scholar]
65. Kiehl JT. , Shields CA. . 2013.. Sensitivity of the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum climate to cloud properties. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 371::20130093 [Google Scholar]
66. Kirk-Davidoff DB. , Lamarque JF. . 2008.. Maintenance of polar stratospheric clouds in a moist stratosphere. . Clim. Past 4::69–78 [Google Scholar]
67. Kirk-Davidoff DB. , Schrag DP. , Anderson JG. . 2002.. On the feedback of stratospheric clouds and polar climate. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 29:(11):51 [Google Scholar]
68. Köhler P. , de Boer B. , von der Heydt AS. , Stap LB. , van de Wal RSW. . 2015.. On the state dependency of the equilibrium climate sensitivity during the last 5 million years. . Clim. Past 11::1801–23 [Google Scholar]
69. Kopp RE. , Raub TD. , Schumann D. , Vali H. , Smirnov AV. , Kirschvink JL. . 2007.. Magnetofossil spike during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: ferromagnetic resonance, rock magnetic, and electron microscopy evidence from Ancora, New Jersey, United States. . Paleoceanography 22::PA4103 [Google Scholar]
70. Kump LR. , Pollard D. . 2008.. Amplification of Cretaceous warmth by biological cloud feedbacks. . Science 320::195 [Google Scholar]
71. Lippert PC. , Zachos JC. . 2007.. A biogenic origin for anomalous fine-grained magnetic material at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary at Wilson Lake, New Jersey. . Paleoceanography 22::PA4104 [Google Scholar]
72. Loptson CA. , Lunt DJ. , Francis JE. . 2014.. Investigating vegetation-climate feedbacks during the early Eocene. . Clim. Past 10::419–36 [Google Scholar]
73. Lunt DJ. , Dunkley Jones T. , Heinemann M. , Huber M. , LeGrande A. , et al. 2012a.. A model-data comparison for a multi-model ensemble of early Eocene atmosphere-ocean simulations: EoMIP. . Clim. Past 8::1717–36A meta-analysis of Eocene climate simulations. [Google Scholar]
74. Lunt DJ. , Haywood AM. , Schmidt GA. , Salzmann U. , Valdes PJ. , Dowsett HJ. . 2010.. Earth system sensitivity inferred from Pliocene modelling and data. . Nat. Geosci. 3::60–64First quantitative treatment of Earth-system sensitivity for the pre-Pleistocene. [Google Scholar]
75. Lunt DJ. , Haywood AM. , Schmidt GA. , Salzmann U. , Valdes PJ. , et al. 2012b.. On the causes of mid-Pliocene warmth and polar amplification. . Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 321–322:128–38 [Google Scholar]
76. Martínez-Botí MA. , Foster GL. , Chalk TB. , Rohling EJ. , Sexton PF. , et al. 2015.. Plio-Pleistocene climate sensitivity evaluated using high-resolution CO₂ records. . Nature 518::49–54Presents an exceptionally rich record of CO₂ and temperature for the Pliocene and early Pleistocene. [Google Scholar]
77. Matthews HD. , Caldeira K. . 2008.. Stabilizing climate requires near-zero emissions. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 35::L04705Demonstrates the centennial constancy of elevated temperatures even if all anthropogenic carbon emissions cease. [Google Scholar]
78. McElwain JC. , Beerling DJ. , Woodward FI. . 1999.. Fossil plants and global warming at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary. . Science 285::1386–90 [Google Scholar]
79. McGhee GR. , Sheenan PM. , Bottjer DJ. , Droser ML. . 2004.. Ecological ranking of Phanerozoic biodiversity crises: ecological and taxonomic severities are decoupled. . Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 211::289–97 [Google Scholar]
80. McInerney FA. , Wing SL. . 2011.. The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: a perturbation of carbon cycle, climate, and biosphere with implications for the future. . Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39::489–516 [Google Scholar]
81. Meraner K. , Mauritsen T. , Voigt A. . 2013.. Robust increases in equilibrium climate sensitivity under global warming. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 40::5944–48 [Google Scholar]
82. Montañez I. , Norris R. , Algeo T. , Chandler M. , Johnson K. , et al. 2011.. Understanding Earth's Deep Past: Lessons for Our Climate Future. Washington, DC:: Natl. Acad. [Google Scholar]
83. Myhre G. , Highwood EJ. , Shine KP. , Stordal F. . 1998.. New estimates of radiative forcing due to well mixed greenhouse gases. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 25::2715–18 [Google Scholar]
84. Otto-Bliesner BL. , Upchurch GR. . 1997.. Vegetation-induced warming of high-latitude regions during the Late Cretaceous period. . Nature 385::804–7 [Google Scholar]
85. Panchuk K. , Ridgwell A. , Kump LR. . 2008.. Sedimentary response to Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum carbon release: a model-data comparison. . Geology 36::315–18 [Google Scholar]
86. Park J. , Royer DL. . 2011.. Geologic constraints on the glacial amplification of Phanerozoic climate sensitivity. . Am. J. Sci. 311::1–26 [Google Scholar]
87. Pearson PN. , Thomas E. . 2015.. Drilling disturbance and constraints on the onset of the Paleocene-Eocene boundary carbon isotope excursion in New Jersey. . Clim. Past 11::95–104 [Google Scholar]
88. Poulsen CJ. , Tabor C. , White JD. . 2015.. Long-term climate forcing by atmospheric oxygen concentrations. . Science 348::1238–41 [Google Scholar]
89. Price GD. , Twitchett RJ. , Wheeley JR. , Buono G. . 2013.. Isotopic evidence for long term warmth in the Mesozoic. . Sci. Rep. 3::1438 [Google Scholar]
90. Prokoph A. , Shields GA. , Veizer J. . 2008.. Compilation and time-series analysis of a marine carbonate δ¹⁸O, δ¹³C, and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and δ³⁴S database through Earth history. . Earth-Sci. Rev. 87::113–33 [Google Scholar]
91. Röhl U. , Bralower TJ. , Norris RD. , Wefer G. . 2000.. New chronology for the late Paleocene thermal maximum and its environmental implications. . Geology 28::927–30 [Google Scholar]
92. Rohling E. , Sluijs A. , Dijkstra H. , Köhler P. de Wal R. , van , et al. 2012.. Making sense of palaeoclimate sensitivity. . Nature 491::683–91Summarizes the paleoclimate sensitivity literature and proposes a syntax for comparing results across studies. [Google Scholar]
93. Royer DL. . 2014.. Atmospheric CO₂ and O₂ during the Phanerozoic: tools, patterns, and impacts. . In Treatise on Geochemistry, Vol. 6: The Atmosphere—History, ed. J Farquhar , pp. 251–67. Oxford:: Elsevier. , 2nd ed.. [Google Scholar]
94. Royer DL. , Berner RA. , Park J. . 2007.. Climate sensitivity constrained by CO₂ concentrations over the past 420 million years. . Nature 446::530–32 [Google Scholar]
95. Royer DL. , Donnadieu Y. , Park J. , Kowalczyk J. , Goddéris Y. . 2014.. Error analysis of CO₂ and O₂ estimates from the long-term geochemical model GEOCARBSULF. . Am. J. Sci. 314::1259–83 [Google Scholar]
96. Royer DL. , Pagani M. , Beerling DJ. . 2012.. Geobiological constraints on Earth system sensitivity to CO₂ during the Cretaceous and Cenozoic. . Geobiology 4::298–310 [Google Scholar]
97. Ruhl M. , Bonis NR. , Reichart G-J. , Sinninghe Damsté JS. , Kürschner WM. . 2011.. Atmospheric carbon injection linked to end-Triassic mass extinction. . Science 333::430–34 [Google Scholar]
98. Sagoo N. , Valdes P. , Flecker R. , Gregoire LJ. . 2013.. The early Eocene equable climate problem: Can perturbations of climate model parameters identify possible solutions?. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 371::20130123Presents the feasibility of correctly simulating early Eocene climate at only 560 ppmv CO₂. [Google Scholar]
99. Schaller MF. , Wright JD. , Kent DV. . 2011.. Atmospheric PCO₂ perturbations associated with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. . Science 331::1404–9 [Google Scholar]
100. Schaller MF. , Wright JD. , Kent DV. , Olsen PE. . 2012.. Rapid emplacement of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province as a net sink for CO₂. . Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 323–24::27–39 [Google Scholar]
101. Schmidt GA. , Ruedy R. , Miller R. , Lacis A. . 2010.. Attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect. . J. Geophys. Res. 115::D20106 [Google Scholar]
102. Sewall JO. , Sloan LC. . 2006.. Come a little bit closer: a high-resolution climate study of the early Paleogene Laramide foreland. . Geology 34::81–84 [Google Scholar]
103. Sewall JO. , Sloan LC. , Huber M. , Wing S. . 2000.. Climate sensitivity to changes in land surface characteristics. . Glob. Planet. Change 26::445–65 [Google Scholar]
104. Shaffer G. , Olsen SM. , Pedersen JOP. . 2009.. Long-term ocean oxygen depletion in response to carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels. . Nat. Geosci. 2::105–9 [Google Scholar]
105. Sloan LC. , Pollard D. . 1998.. Polar stratospheric clouds: a high latitude warming mechanism in an ancient greenhouse world. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 25::3517–20 [Google Scholar]
106. Sloan LC. , Rea DK. . 1995.. Atmospheric carbon dioxide and early Eocene climate: a general circulation modeling sensitivity study. . Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 119::275–92 [Google Scholar]
107. Sloan LC. , Walker JCG. , Moore TC. , Rea DK. , Zachos JC. . 1992.. Possible methane-induced polar warming in the early Eocene. . Nature 357::320–22 [Google Scholar]
108. Soden BJ. , Held IM. . 2006.. An assessment of climate feedbacks in coupled ocean-atmosphere models. . J. Clim. 19::3354–60 [Google Scholar]
109. Solomon S. , Daniel JS. , Sanford TJ. , Murphy DM. , Plattner G-K. , et al. 2010.. Persistence of climate changes due to a range of greenhouse gases. . PNAS 107::18354–59 [Google Scholar]
110. Solomon S. , Plattner G-K. , Knutti R. , Friedlingstein P. . 2009.. Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions. . PNAS 106::1704–9 [Google Scholar]
111. Steinthorsdottir M. , Jeram AJ. , McElwain JC. . 2011.. Extremely elevated CO₂ concentrations at the Triassic/Jurassic boundary. . Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 308::418–32 [Google Scholar]
112. Thomas E. , Shackleton NJ. . 1996.. The Paleocene-Eocene benthic foraminiferal extinction and stable isotope anomalies. . Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 101::401–41 [Google Scholar]
113. Unger N. , Yue X. . 2014.. Strong chemistry-climate feedbacks in the Pliocene. . Geophys. Res. Lett. 41::527–33 [Google Scholar]
114. Upchurch GR. , Kiehl J. , Shields C. , Scherer J. , Scotese C. . 2015.. Latitudinal temperature gradients and high-latitude temperatures during the latest Cretaceous: congruence of geologic data and climate models. . Geology 43::683–86 [Google Scholar]
115. Valdes PJ. . 2011.. Built for stability. . Nat. Geosci. 4::414–16Discusses some of the key challenges of paleoclimate modeling. [Google Scholar]
116. van de Wal RSW. , de Boer B. , Lourens LJ. , Köhler P. , Bintanja R. . 2011.. Reconstruction of a continuous high-resolution CO₂ record over the past 20 million years. . Clim. Past 7::1459–69 [Google Scholar]
117. Zachos JC. , Dickens GR. , Zeebe RE. . 2008.. An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics. . Nature 451::279–83 [Google Scholar]
118. Zachos JC. , Röhl U. , Schellenberg SA. , Sluijs A. , Hodell DA. , et al. 2005.. Rapid acidification of the ocean during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. . Science 308::1611–15 [Google Scholar]
119. Zachos JC. , Shackleton NJ. , Revenaugh JS. , Pälike H. , Flower BP. . 2001.. Climate response to orbital forcing across the Oligocene-Miocene boundary. . Science 292::274–78 [Google Scholar]
120. Zeebe RE. . 2011.. Where are you heading Earth?. Nat. Geosci. 4::416–17 [Google Scholar]
121. Zeebe RE. . 2013.. Time-dependent climate sensitivity and the legacy of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. . PNAS 110::13739–44Models the effects associated with an Earth-system sensitivity on our long-term climate future. [Google Scholar]
122. Zeebe RE. , Zachos JC. , Dickens GR. . 2009.. Carbon dioxide forcing alone insufficient to explain Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum warming. . Nat. Geosci. 2::576–80 [Google Scholar]
123. Zhang YG. , Pagani M. , Liu Z. , Bohaty SM. , DeConto R. . 2013.. A 40-million-year history of atmospheric CO₂. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 371::20130096 [Google Scholar]
124. Zhou J. , Poulsen CJ. , Rosenbloom N. , Shields C. , Briegleb B. . 2012.. Vegetation-climate interactions in the warm mid-Cretaceous. . Clim. Past 8::565–76 [Google Scholar]
125. Zickfeld K. , Eby M. , Weaver AJ. , Alexander K. , Crespin E. , et al. 2013.. Long-term climate change commitment and reversibility: an EMIC intercomparison. . J. Clim. 26::5782–809 [Google Scholar]