1932

Abstract

Among the ground-nesting bees are several proven crop pollinators, but only the alkali bee () has been successfully managed. In <80 years, it has become the world's most intensely studied ground-nesting solitary bee. In many ways, the bee seems paradoxical. It nests during the torrid, parched midsummer amid arid valleys and basins of the western United States, yet it wants damp nesting soil. In these basins, extensive monocultures of an irrigated Eurasian crop plant, alfalfa (lucerne), subsidize millions of alkali bees. Elsewhere, its polylectic habits and long foraging range allow it to stray into neighboring crops contaminated with insecticides. Primary wild floral hosts are either non-native or poorly known. Kleptoparasitic bees plague most ground nesters, but not alkali bees, which do, however, host other well-studied parasitoids. Building effective nesting beds requires understanding the hydraulic conductivity of silty nesting soils and its important interplay with specific soil mineral salts. Surprisingly, some isolated populations endure inhospitably cold climates by nesting amid hot springs. Despite the peculiarities and challenges associated with its management, the alkali bee remains the second most valuable managed solitary bee for US agriculture and perhaps the world.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-020623-013716
2024-01-25
2024-10-04
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/ento/69/1/annurev-ento-020623-013716.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-020623-013716&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1.
    Adhikari L, Makaju SO, Missaoui AM. 2019. QTL mapping of flowering time and biomass yield in tetraploid alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). BMC Plant Biol. 19:359
    [Google Scholar]
  2. 2.
    Batra LR, Batra SWT, Bohart GE. 1973. The mycoflora of domesticated and wild bees (Apoidea). Mycopathol. Mycol. Appl. 49:13–44
    [Google Scholar]
  3. 3.
    Batra SWT. 1966. Social behavior and nests of some nomiine bees in India (Hymenoptera, Halictidæ). Insectes Soc. 13:3145–53
    [Google Scholar]
  4. 4.
    Batra SWT. 1970. Behavior of the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi, within the nest (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 63:400–6Invented glass observation nests for doctoral studies of ground-nesting bees within their nests.
    [Google Scholar]
  5. 5.
    Batra SWT, Bohart GE. 1970. Brood care in halictid bees. Science 168:875
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6.
    Bohart GE. 1957. Pollination of alfalfa and red clover. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2:355–80
    [Google Scholar]
  7. 7.
    Bohart GE. 1972. Management of wild bees for the pollination of crops. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 17:287–312
    [Google Scholar]
  8. 8.
    Bohart GE, Cross EA. 1955. Time relationships in the nest construction and life cycle of the alkali bee. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 48:403–6
    [Google Scholar]
  9. 9.
    Bohart GE, Lieberman FV. 1949. Effect of an experimental field application of DDT dust on Nomia melanderi. J. Econ. Entomol. 42:519–22
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 10.
    Bohart GE, Stephen WP, Eppley RK. 1960. The biology of Heterostylum robustum (Diptera: Bombyliidae), a parasite of the alkali bee. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 53:425–35
    [Google Scholar]
  11. 11.
    Cane JH. 1991. Soils of ground-nesting bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea): texture, moisture, cell depth and climate. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 64:406–13
    [Google Scholar]
  12. 12.
    Cane JH. 1997. Ground-nesting bees: the neglected pollinator resource for agriculture. Acta Hortic. 437:309–24
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 13.
    Cane JH. 1997. Lifetime monetary value of individual pollinators: the bee Habropoda laboriosa at rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium ashei Reade). Acta Hortic. 446:67–70
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14.
    Cane JH. 2002. Pollinating bees (Hymenoptera: Apiformes) of U.S. alfalfa compared for rates of pod and seed set. J. Econ. Entomol. 95:22–27
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15.
    Cane JH. 2003. Annual displacement of soil in nest tumuli of alkali bees (Nomia melanderi) (Hymenoptera: Apiformies: Halictidae) across an agricultural landscape. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 76:172–76
    [Google Scholar]
  16. 16.
    Cane JH. 2008. A native ground-nesting bee (Nomia melanderi) sustainably managed to pollinate alfalfa across an intensively agricultural landscape. Apidologie 39:315–23
    [Google Scholar]
  17. 17.
    Cane JH. 2021. Global warming, advancing bloom and evidence for pollinator plasticity from long-term bee emergence monitoring. Insects 12:5457
    [Google Scholar]
  18. 18.
    Cane JH, Dobson HEM, Boyer B. 2017. Timing and size of the daily pollen meal eaten by adult females of a solitary bee (Nomia melanderi) (Apiformes: Halictidae). Apidologie 48:17–30
    [Google Scholar]
  19. 19.
    Cane JH, Gardner DR, Harrison PA. 2011. Nectar and pollen sugars constituting larval provisions of the alfalfa leaf-cutting bee (Megachile rotundata) (Hymenoptera: Apiformes: Megachilidae). Apidologie 42:401–8
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 20.
    Cane JH, Love BG. 2021. Hygroscopic larval provisions of bees absorb soil water vapor and release liquefied nutrients. Apidologie 52:1002–16
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21.
    Cane JH, Schiffhauer D, Kervin LJ. 1996. Pollination, foraging, and nesting ecology of the leaf-cutting bee Megachile (Delomegachile) addenda (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) on cranberry beds. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 89:361–67
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22.
    Cane JH, Tengö JO. 1981. Pheromonal cues direct mate-seeking behaviors of male Colletes cunicularius (Hymenoptera: Colletidae). J. Chem. Ecol. 7:427–36
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23.
    Cockerell T. 1910. The North American bees of the genus Nomia. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Smithson. Inst. Wash. 38:289–98
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24.
    Cross EA, Bohart GE. 1969. Phoretic behavior of four species of alkali bee mites as influenced by season and host sex. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 42:195–219
    [Google Scholar]
  25. 25.
    Cross EA, Bohart GE. 1992. The biology of Imparipes apicola (Acari: Scutacaridae) and its relationships to the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi (Hymenoptera: Halictidae), and to certain fungi in the bee cell ecosystem. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 65:2157–73
    [Google Scholar]
  26. 26.
    Danforth BN, Minckley RL, Neff JL. 2019. The Solitary Bees: Biology, Evolution, Conservation Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. PressA comprehensive, thoughtful, and readable synthesis of all that is known about solitary bees.
    [Google Scholar]
  27. 27.
    Duffield RM, LaBerge WE, Cane JH, Wheeler JW. 1982. Exocrine secretions of bees. IV. Macrocyclic lactones and isopentenyl esters in Dufour's gland secretions of Nomia bees (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). J. Chem. Ecol. 8:535–43
    [Google Scholar]
  28. 28.
    Dylewska M, Jablonski B, Sowa S, Bilinski M, Wrona S. 1970. Proba okreslenia liczby pszczol (Hymenoptera, Opoidea) potrzebnych do nalezytego zapylenia lucerny. Pol. Pismo Entomol. 40:37198Pioneering work comparing multiple European bees foraging at lucerne in terms of their pollination efficacies and necessary densities for a seed crop.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29.
    Eves JD, Mayer DF, Johansen CA. 1980. Parasite, predators, and nest destroyers of the alfalfa leafcutting bee Megachile rotundata. Rep. 183 West. Reg. Ext., Utah State Univ. Logan:
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30.
    Frick KE, Potter HW, Weaver H. 1960. Development and maintenance of alkali bee nesting sites Circ. 366 WSU Ext., Wash. State Univ. Pullman:
    [Google Scholar]
  31. 31.
    Fronk WD, Painter LI. 1960. Some characteristics of alkali bee nesting sites. J. Econ. Entomol. 53:424–25
    [Google Scholar]
  32. 32.
    Hackwell GA, Stephen WP. 1966. Eclosion and duration of larval development in the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi (Hymenoptera-Apoidea). Pan-Pac. Entomol. 42:196–200
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33.
    Howell JF. 1967. Biology of Zodion obliquefasciatum (Macq.) (Diptera: Conopidae) Tech. Bull. 51 Wash. Agric. Exp. Stn., Wash. State Univ. Pullman:
    [Google Scholar]
  34. 34.
    Johansen C, Mayer D, Stanford A, Kious C. 1982. Alkali bees: their biology and management for alfalfa seed production in the Pacific Northwest Rep. 155 WSU Ext., Wash. State Univ. Pullman:
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35.
    Johansen CA, Mayer DF. 1990. Pollinator Protection: A Bee and Pesticide Handbook Cheshire, CT: Wicwas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  36. 36.
    Johansen CA, Mayer DF, Eves JD. 1978. Biology and management of the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi Cockerell (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). Melanderia 28:25–46
    [Google Scholar]
  37. 37.
    Kapheim KM, Johnson MM, Jolley M. 2021. Composition and acquisition of the microbiome in solitary, ground-nesting alkali bees. Sci. Rep. 11:2993
    [Google Scholar]
  38. 38.
    Kapheim KM, Pan H, Li C, Blatti C III, Harpur BA et al. 2019. Draft genome assembly and population genetics of an agricultural pollinator, the solitary alkali bee (Halictidae: Nomia melanderi). G3 9:3625–34
    [Google Scholar]
  39. 39.
    Klein AM, Vassiere BE, Cane JH, Steffan-Dewenter I, Cunningham S et al. 2007. Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 274:303–13Comprehensively compiles and interprets breeding biologies, pollination needs, and pollinators for all of the world's food crops.
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 40.
    Lesins K. 1950. Investigations into seed setting of lucerne at Ultuna, Sweden, 1945–1949. Ann. R. Agric. Coll. Swed. 17:441–79
    [Google Scholar]
  41. 41.
    Linsley EG. 1946. Insect pollinators of alfalfa in California. J. Econ. Entomol. 39:18–29
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42.
    Mayer DF, Johansen CA. 1978. Bionomics of Meloe niger Kirby (Coleoptera: Meloidae) a predator of the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi Cockerell (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). Melanderia 28:1–22
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43.
    Mayer DF, Johansen CA. 2003. The rise and decline of Nomia melanderi as a commercial pollinator of alfalfa seed. See Reference 63 139–49
  44. 44.
    Mayer DF, Miliczky ER. 1998. Emergence, male behavior, and mating in the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi (Cockerell) (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 71:61–68
    [Google Scholar]
  45. 45.
    Michener CD. 2007. The Bees of the World Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  46. 46.
    Minckley RL, Danforth BN. 2019. Sources and frequency of brood loss in solitary bees. Apidologie 50:4515–25
    [Google Scholar]
  47. 47.
    Moradeshaghi MJ, Bohart GE. 1968. The biology of Euphytomima nomiivora (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 41:4456–73
    [Google Scholar]
  48. 48.
    Morandin LA, Laverty TM, Kevan PG. 2001. Effect of bumble bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) pollination intensity on the quality of greenhouse tomatoes. J. Econ. Entomol. 94:172–79
    [Google Scholar]
  49. 49.
    Neff JL. 2008. Components of nest provisioning behavior in solitary bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Apidologie 39:30–45
    [Google Scholar]
  50. 50.
    Olmstead AL, Wooten DB. 1987. Bee pollination and productivity growth: the case of alfalfa. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 69:56–63
    [Google Scholar]
  51. 51.
    Parker FD, Potter HW. 1974. Methods of transferring and establishing the alkali bee. Environ. Entomol. 3:739–43
    [Google Scholar]
  52. 52.
    Pedersen MW, Bohart GE. 1953. Factors responsible for the attractiveness of various clones of alfalfa to pollen-collecting bumble bees. Agron. J. 45:548–51
    [Google Scholar]
  53. 53.
    Pitts-Singer TL, Cane JH. 2011. The alfalfa leafcutting bee, Megachile rotundata: the world's most intensively managed solitary bee. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 56:221–37
    [Google Scholar]
  54. 54.
    Ribble DW. 1965. A revision of the banded subgenera of Nomia in America (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull. 45:277–359
    [Google Scholar]
  55. 55.
    Rust R. 2007. Emergence patterns in the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi Cockerell 1906 (Hymenoptera: Halictidae): laboratory versus field. Pan-Pac. Entomol. 83:136–42
    [Google Scholar]
  56. 56.
    Rust RW. 2006. Latitudinal variation in the size and developmental parameters of the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 79:239–48
    [Google Scholar]
  57. 57.
    Stephen WP. 1960. Artificial beds for the propagation of the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi. J. Econ. Entomol. 53:1025–30
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58.
    Stephen WP. 1960. Studies in the alkali bee (Nomia melanderi Ckll.) Bull. 52 Agric. Exp. Stn., Or. State Coll. Corvallis:First characterization of the exacting soil requirements of alkali bees, resulting in effective nesting bed designs.
    [Google Scholar]
  59. 59.
    Stephen WP. 1965. Effects of soil moisture on survival of prepupae of the alkali bee. J. Econ. Entomol. 58:472–74
    [Google Scholar]
  60. 60.
    Stephen WP. 1965. Temperature effects on the development and multiple generations in the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi Cockerell. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 8:228–40
    [Google Scholar]
  61. 61.
    Stephen WP. 2003. Solitary bees in North American agriculture: a perspective. See Reference 63 41–66
  62. 62.
    Stephen WP, Bohart GE, Torchio PF. 1969. The Biology and External Morphology of Bees Corvallis, OR: Or. State Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn.
    [Google Scholar]
  63. 63.
    Strickler K, Cane JHeds. 2003. For Non-Native Crops, Whence Pollinators of the Future? Lanham, MD: Entomol. Soc. Am.
    [Google Scholar]
  64. 64.
    Teuber LR, Barnes DK. 1979. Environmental and genetic influences on alfalfa nectar. Crop Sci. 19:874–78
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65.
    Tysdal HM. 1940. Is tripping necessary for seed setting in alfalfa?. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 32:570–85
    [Google Scholar]
  66. 66.
    Vinchesi A, Cobos D, Lavine L, Walsh D. 2013. Manipulation of soil temperatures to influence brood emergence in the alkali bee (Nomia melanderi). Apidologie 44:286–94
    [Google Scholar]
  67. 67.
    Vuong HQ, McFrederick QS. 2019. Comparative genomics of wild bee and flower isolated Lactobacillus reveals potential adaptation to the bee host. Genome Biol. Evol. 11:82151–61
    [Google Scholar]
  68. 68.
    Wcislo WT, Cane JH. 1996. Floral resource utilization by solitary bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) and exploitation of their stored foods by natural enemies. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 41:195–224
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69.
    Wichelns D, Weaver TF, Brooks PM. 1992. Estimating the impact of alkali bees on the yield and acreage of alfalfa seed. J. Prod. Agric. 5:512–18
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-020623-013716
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-020623-013716
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplementary Data

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error