Compositional, Structural, and Kinetic Aspects of Lipid Digestion and Bioavailability: In Vitro, In Vivo, and Modeling Approaches

Literature Cited

1. Andrade J, Wright AJ, Corredig M. 2018. In vitro digestion behavior of water-in-oil-in-water emulsions with gelled oil-water inner phases. Food Res. Int. 105:41–51
   [Google Scholar]
2. Armand M, Pasquier B, Andre M, Borel P, Senft M et al. 1999. Digestion and absorption of 2 fat emulsions with different droplet sizes in the human digestive tract. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70:1096–106
   [Google Scholar]
3. Asnicar F, Berry SE, Valdes AM, Nguyen LH, Piccinno G et al. 2021. Microbiome connections with host metabolism and habitual diet from 1,098 deeply phenotyped individuals. Nat. Med. 27:321–32
   [Google Scholar]
4. Augustin MA, Sanguansri L, Rusli JK, Shen ZP, Cheng LJ et al. 2014. Digestion of microencapsulated oil powders: in vitro lipolysis and in vivo absorption from a food matrix. Food Funct 5:2905–912
   [Google Scholar]
5. Backhed F, Ding H, Wang T, Hooper LV, Koh GY et al. 2004. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. PNAS 101:15718–23
   [Google Scholar]
6. Barclay AW, Petocz P, McMillan-Price J, Flood VM, Prvan T et al. 2008. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and chronic disease risk: a metaanalysis of observational studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87:627–37
   [Google Scholar]
7. Barros D, Garcia-Rio F. 2019. Obstructive sleep apnea and dyslipidemia: from animal models to clinical evidence. Sleep 42:zsy236
   [Google Scholar]
8. Bastianelli D, Sauvant D, Rerat A. 1996. Mathematical modeling of digestion and nutrient absorption in pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 74:1873–87
   [Google Scholar]
9. Bellesi FA, Martinez MJ, Ruiz-Henestrosa VMP, Pilosof AMR. 2016. Comparative behavior of protein or polysaccharide stabilized emulsion under in vitro gastrointestinal conditions. Food Hydrocoll. 52:47–56
   [Google Scholar]
10. Berry SE, Valdes AM, Drew DA, Asnicar F, Mazidi M et al. 2020. Human postprandial responses to food and potential for precision nutrition. Nat. Med. 26:964–73
    [Google Scholar]
11. Berton A, Rouvellac S, Robert B, Rousseau F, Lopez C, Crenon I. 2012. Effect of the size and interface composition of milk fat globules on their in vitro digestion by the human pancreatic lipase: native versus homogenized milk fat globules. Food Hydrocoll. 29:123–34
    [Google Scholar]
12. Blaak EE, Antoine JM, Benton D, Bjorck I, Bozzetto L et al. 2012. Impact of postprandial glycaemia on health and prevention of disease. Obes. Rev. 13:923–84
    [Google Scholar]
13. Boirie Y, Dangin M, Gachon P, Vasson MP, Maubois JL, Beaufrere B. 1997. Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. PNAS 94:14930–35
    [Google Scholar]
14. Borel P, Armand M, Pasquier B, Senft M, Dutot G et al. 1994. Digestion and absorption of tube-feeding emulsions with different droplet sizes and compositions in the rat. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 18:534–43
    [Google Scholar]
15. Borel P, Grolier P, Armand M, Partier A, Lafont H et al. 1996. Carotenoids in biological emulsions: solubility, surface-to-core distribution, and release from lipid droplets. J. Lipid Res. 37:250–61
    [Google Scholar]
16. Borel P, Lairon D, Senft M, Chautan M, Lafont H 1989. Wheat bran and wheat-germ: effect on digestion and intestinal-absorption of dietary lipids in the rat. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 49:1192–202
    [Google Scholar]
17. Borel P, Pasquier B, Armand M, Tyssandier V, Grolier P et al. 2001. Processing of vitamin A and E in the human gastrointestinal tract. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 280:G95–103
    [Google Scholar]
18. Borgström B, Dahlqvist A, Lundh G, Sjovall J. 1957. Studies of intestinal digestion and absorption in the human. J. Clin. Investig. 36:1521–36
    [Google Scholar]
19. Borgstrom B, Hofmann A, Lundh G. 1963. Site of absorption of conjugated bile salts in man. Gastroenterology 45:229–38
    [Google Scholar]
20. Carrière F, Renou C, Lopez V, De Caro J, Ferrato F et al. 2000. The specific activities of human digestive lipases measured from the in vivo and in vitro lipolysis of test meals. Gastroenterology 119:949–60
    [Google Scholar]
21. Cartwright IJ, Higgins AA. 1999. Increased dietary triacylglycerol markedly enhances the ability of isolated rabbit enterocytes to secrete chylomicrons: an effect related to dietary fatty acid composition. J. Lipid Res. 40:1858–66
    [Google Scholar]
22. Chatzidaki MD, Mateos-Diaz E, Leal-Calderon F, Xenakis A, Carriere F 2016. Water-in-oil microemulsions versus emulsions as carriers of hydroxytyrosol: an in vitro gastrointestinal lipolysis study using the pHstat technique. Food Funct 7:2258–69
    [Google Scholar]
23. Clark ML, Lanz HC, Senior JR. 1969. Bile salt regulation of fatty acid absorption and esterification in rat everted jejunal sacs in vitro and into thoracic duct lymph in vivo. J. Clin. Investig. 48:1587–99
    [Google Scholar]
24. Clark SB, Lawergren B, Martin JV 1973. Regional intestinal absorptive capacities for triolein: alternative to markers. Am. J. Physiol. 225:574–85
    [Google Scholar]
25. Cohen JC. 1989. Chylomicron triglyceride clearance: comparison of 3 assessment methods. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 49:306–13
    [Google Scholar]
26. Corstens MN, Berton-Carabin CC, Schroen K, Viau M, Meynier A. 2018. Emulsion encapsulation in calcium-alginate beads delays lipolysis during dynamic in vitro digestion. J. Funct. Foods 46:394–402
    [Google Scholar]
27. Couëdelo L, Amara S, Lecomte M, Meugnier E, Monteil J et al. 2015. Impact of various emulsifiers on ALA bioavailability and chylomicron synthesis through changes in gastrointestinal lipolysis. Food Funct 6:1726–35
    [Google Scholar]
28. Dangin M, Boirie Y, Garcia-Rodenas C, Gachon P, Fauquant J et al. 2001. The digestion rate of protein is an independent regulating factor of postprandial protein retention. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 280:E340–48
    [Google Scholar]
29. Dangin M, Guillet C, Garcia-Rodenas C, Gachon P, Bouteloup-Demange C et al. 2003. The rate of protein digestion affects protein gain differently during aging in humans. J. Physiol. 549:635–44
    [Google Scholar]
30. Day L, Golding M, Xu M, Keogh J, Clifton P, Wooster TJ 2014. Tailoring the digestion of structured emulsions using mixed monoglyceride-caseinate interfaces. Food Hydrocoll. 36:151–61
    [Google Scholar]
31. Dekkers BL, Acquistapace S, Donato L, Soulie V, Stoudmann R et al. 2020. Biodegradable biopolymer network structures to create delayed burst digestive release of encapsulated lipids. Food Hydrocoll. 99:105303
    [Google Scholar]
32. DeLoid GM, Sohal IS, Lorente LR, Molina RM, Pyrgiotakis G et al. 2018. Reducing intestinal digestion and absorption of fat using a nature-derived biopolymer: interference of triglyceride hydrolysis by nanocellulose. ACS Nano 12:6469–79
    [Google Scholar]
33. Dias CB, Zhu XQ, Thompson AK, Singh H, Garg ML. 2019. Effect of the food form and structure on lipid digestion and postprandial lipaemic response. Food Funct 10:112–24
    [Google Scholar]
34. Dickinson E. 2011. Double emulsions stabilized by food biopolymers. Food Biophys 6:1–11
    [Google Scholar]
35. Du Le H, Loveday SM, Singh H, Sarkar A 2020. Gastrointestinal digestion of Pickering emulsions stabilised by hydrophobically modified cellulose nanocrystals: release of short-chain fatty acids. Food Chem. 320:126650
    [Google Scholar]
36. Edelbroek M, Horowitz M, Maddox A, Bellen J. 1992. Gastric-emptying and intragastric distribution of oil in the presence of a liquid or a solid meal. J. Nuclear Med. 33:1283–90
    [Google Scholar]
37. Feng J, Huang MG, Chai Z, Li CY, Huang WY et al. 2020. The influence of oil composition on the transformation, bioaccessibility, and intestinal absorption of curcumin in nanostructured lipid carriers. Food Funct 11:5223–39
    [Google Scholar]
38. Fondaco D, Alhasawi F, Lan Y, Ben-Elazar S, Connolly K, Rogers MA 2015. Biophysical aspects of lipid digestion in human breast milk and Similac™ infant formulas. Food Biophys 10:282–91
    [Google Scholar]
39. Gahruie HH, Niakousari M, Parastouei K, Mokhtarian M, Eş I, Khaneghah AM 2020. Co-encapsulation of vitamin D₃ and saffron petals’ bioactive compounds in nanoemulsions: effects of emulsifier and homogenizer types. J. Food Process. Preserv. 44:8e14629
    [Google Scholar]
40. Gaucel S, Trelea IC, Le Feunteun S. 2015. Comment on new mathematical model for interpreting pH-stat digestion profiles: impact of lipid droplet characteristics on in vitro digestibility. J. Agric. Food Chem. 63:10352–53
    [Google Scholar]
41. Giang TM, Gaucel S, Brestaz P, Anton M, Meynier A et al. 2016. Dynamic modeling of in vitro lipid digestion: individual fatty acid release and bioaccessibility kinetics. Food Chem 194:1180–88
    [Google Scholar]
42. Giang TM, Le Feunteun S, Gaucel S, Brestaz P, Anton M et al. 2015. Dynamic modeling highlights the major impact of droplet coalescence on the in vitro digestion kinetics of a whey protein stabilized submicron emulsion. Food Hydrocoll. 43:66–72
    [Google Scholar]
43. Giroux HJ, Robitaille G, Britten M. 2016. Controlled release of casein-derived peptides in the gastrointestinal environment by encapsulation in water-in-oil-in-water double emulsions. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 69:225–32
    [Google Scholar]
44. Gleize B, Hiolle M, Meunier N, Pereira B, Richard R et al. 2020. Food structure modulates the bioavailability of triglycerides and vitamin D, and partly that of lutein: a randomized trial with a crossover design in adults. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 64:21e2000228
    [Google Scholar]
45. Golding M, Wooster TJ, Day L, Xu M, Lundin L et al. 2011. Impact of gastric structuring on the lipolysis of emulsified lipids. Soft Matter 7:3513–23
    [Google Scholar]
46. Gonzalez C, Simpson R, Vega O, Del Campo V, Pinto M et al. 2020. Effect of particle size on in vitro intestinal digestion of emulsion-filled gels: mathematical analysis based on the Gallagher-Corrigan model. Food Bioprod. Process. 120:33–40
    [Google Scholar]
47. Grassby T, Mandalari G, Grundy MML, Edwards CH, Bisignano C et al. 2017. In vitro and in vivo modeling of lipid bioaccessibility and digestion from almond muffins: the importance of the cell-wall barrier mechanism. J. Funct. Foods 37:263–71
    [Google Scholar]
48. Greenberger NJ, Skillman TG. 1969. Medium-chain triglycerides: physiologic considerations and clinical implications. N. Engl. J. Med. 280:1045–58
    [Google Scholar]
49. Guyton AC, Hall JE. 2016. Textbook of Medical Physiology. Philadelphia: Elsevier
    [Google Scholar]
50. He SH, Zhou SJ, Guo WY, Wang YH, Liu CH et al. 2020. Investigation of curcumin emulsion stability and gastrointestinal digestion prepared with rapeseed oil body. J. Food Process Eng. 43:12e13556
    [Google Scholar]
51. Helbig A, Silletti E, Timmerman E, Hamer RJ, Gruppen H 2012. In vitro study of intestinal lipolysis using pH-stat and gas chromatography. Food Hydrocoll. 28:10–19
    [Google Scholar]
52. Hiolle M, Lechevalier V, Floury J, Boulier-Monthean N, Prioul C et al. 2020. In vitro digestion of complex foods: how microstructure influences food disintegration and micronutrient bioaccessibility. Food Res. Int. 128:108817
    [Google Scholar]
53. Hunt JN. 1983. Mechanisms and disorders of gastric-emptying. Annu. Rev. Med. 34:219–29
    [Google Scholar]
54. Ikeda I, Sasaki E, Yasunami H, Nomiyama S, Nakayama M et al. 1995. Digestion and lymphatic transport of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids given in the form of triacylglycerol, free acid and ethyl ester in rats. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1259:297–304
    [Google Scholar]
55. Infantes-Garcia MR, Verkempinck SHE, Gonzalez-Fuentes PG, Hendrickx ME, Grauwet T 2021a. Lipolysis products formation during in vitro gastric digestion is affected by the emulsion interfacial composition. Food Hydrocoll. 110:106163
    [Google Scholar]
56. Infantes-Garcia MR, Verkempinck SHE, Hendrickx ME, Grauwet T. 2021b. Kinetic modeling of in vitro small intestinal lipid digestion as affected by the emulsion interfacial composition and gastric prelipolysis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 69:4708–19
    [Google Scholar]
57. Jackson KG, Poppitt SD, Minihane AM. 2012. Postprandial lipemia and cardiovascular disease risk: interrelationships between dietary, physiological and genetic determinants. Atherosclerosis 220:22–33
    [Google Scholar]
58. Jenkins DJA, Ghafari H, Wolever TMS, Taylor RH, Jenkins AL et al. 1982. Relationship between rate of digestion of foods and post-prandial glycemia. Diabetologia 22:450–55
    [Google Scholar]
59. Jenkins DJA, Wolever TMS, Taylor RH, Barker H, Fielden H et al. 1981. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological-basis for carbohydrate exchange. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34:362–66
    [Google Scholar]
60. Jenkins DJA, Wolever TMS, Taylor RH, Ghafari H, Jenkins AL et al. 1980. Rate of digestion of foods and postprandial glycemia in normal and diabetic subjects. Br. Med. J. 281:14–17
    [Google Scholar]
61. Kaimainen M, Marze S, Jarvenpaa E, Anton M, Huopalahti R 2015. Encapsulation of betalain into w/o/w double emulsion and release during in vitro intestinal lipid digestion. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 60:899–904
    [Google Scholar]
62. Kay CD, Pereira-Caro G, Ludwig IA, Clifford MN, Crozier A 2017. Anthocyanins and flavanones are more bioavailable than previously perceived: a review of recent evidence. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 8:155–80
    [Google Scholar]
63. Keogh JB, Wooster TJ, Golding M, Day L, Otto B, Clifton PM 2011. Slowly and rapidly digested fat emulsions are equally satiating but their triglycerides are differentially absorbed and metabolized in humans. J. Nutr. 141:809–15
    [Google Scholar]
64. Kolovou GD, Watts GF, Mikhailidis DP, Perez-Martinez P, Mora S et al. 2019. Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia revisited in the era of non-fasting lipid profile testing: a 2019 expert panel statement, narrative review. Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol. 17:515–37
    [Google Scholar]
65. Krag E, Phillips SF. 1974. Active and passive bile-acid absorption in man: perfusion studies of ileum and jejunum. J. Clin. Investig. 53:1686–94
    [Google Scholar]
66. Lamothe S, Corbeil MM, Turgeon SL, Britten M. 2012. Influence of cheese matrix on lipid digestion in a simulated gastro-intestinal environment. Food Funct 3:724–31
    [Google Scholar]
67. Lamothe S, Langlois A, Bazinet L, Couillard C, Britten M 2016. Antioxidant activity and nutrient release from polyphenol-enriched cheese in a simulated gastrointestinal environment. Food Funct 7:1634–44
    [Google Scholar]
68. Lecomte M, Bourlieu C, Meugnier E, Penhoat A, Cheillan D et al. 2015. Milk polar lipids affect in vitro digestive lipolysis and postprandial lipid metabolism in mice. J. Nutr. 145:1770–77
    [Google Scholar]
69. Li Y, McClements DJ. 2010. New mathematical model for interpreting pH-stat digestion profiles: impact of lipid droplet characteristics on in vitro digestibility. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58:8085–92
    [Google Scholar]
70. Lin XY, Li SN, Yin JH, Chang FD, Wang C et al. 2020. Anthocyanin-loaded double Pickering emulsion stabilized by octenylsuccinate quinoa starch: preparation, stability and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 152:1233–41
    [Google Scholar]
71. Lu XX, Zhang HW, Zheng T, Liu QR, Zhu JY, Huang QR. 2020. Evaluation of oral bioaccessibility of aged citrus peel extracts encapsulated in different lipid-based systems: a comparison study using different in vitro digestion models. J. Agric. Food Chem. 68:97–105
    [Google Scholar]
72. Lu XX, Zhu JY, Pan YJ, Huang QR. 2019. Assessment of dynamic bioaccessibility of curcumin encapsulated in milled starch particle stabilized Pickering emulsions using TNO's gastrointestinal model. Food Funct 10:2583–94
    [Google Scholar]
73. Luo YM, Liu Y, Guo H, Fu HF. 2020. Evaluation of the bioaccessibility of carotenoid esters from Lycium barbarum L. in nano-emulsions: a kinetic approach. Food Res. Int. 136:109611
    [Google Scholar]
74. Macho-Gonzalez A, Garcimartin A, Naes F, Lopez-Oliva ME, Amores-Arrojo A et al. 2018. Effects of fiber purified extract of carob fruit on fat digestion and postprandial lipemia in healthy rats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 66:6734–41
    [Google Scholar]
75. Maljaars PWJ, Peters HPF, Mela DJ, Masclee AAM 2008. Ileal brake: a sensible food target for appetite control. A review. Physiol. Behav. 95:271–81
    [Google Scholar]
76. Martinez-Guryn K, Hubert N, Frazier K, Urlass S, Musch MW et al. 2018. Small intestine microbiota regulate host digestive and absorptive adaptive responses to dietary lipids. Cell Host Microbe 23:4458–69.e5
    [Google Scholar]
77. Marze S. 2013. Bioaccessibility of nutrients and micronutrients from dispersed food systems: impact of the multiscale bulk and interfacial structures. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 53:76–108
    [Google Scholar]
78. Marze S. 2014. A coarse-grained simulation to study the digestion and bioaccessibility of lipophilic nutrients and micronutrients in emulsion. Food Funct 5:129–39
    [Google Scholar]
79. Marze S. 2015a. Bioaccessibility of lipophilic micro-constituents from a lipid emulsion. Food Funct 6:3218–27
    [Google Scholar]
80. Marze S. 2015b. Refining in silico simulation to study digestion parameters affecting the bioaccessibility of lipophilic nutrients and micronutrients. Food Funct 6:115–24
    [Google Scholar]
81. Marze S. 2017a. Bioavailability of nutrients and micronutrients: advances in modeling and in vitro approaches. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 8:35–55
    [Google Scholar]
82. Marze S 2017b. Modeling of food digestion. Modeling of Microscale Transport in Biological Processes SM Becker 353–74 Amsterdam: Elsevier
    [Google Scholar]
83. Marze S, Algaba H, Marquis M 2014. A microfluidic device to study the digestion of trapped lipid droplets. Food Funct 5:1481–88
    [Google Scholar]
84. Marze S, Choimet M. 2012. In vitro digestion of emulsions: mechanistic and experimental models. Soft Matter 8:10982–93
    [Google Scholar]
85. Marze S, Choimet M, Foucat L 2012. In vitro digestion of emulsions: diffusion and particle size distribution using diffusing wave spectroscopy and diffusion using nuclear magnetic resonance. Soft Matter 8:10994–1004
    [Google Scholar]
86. Marze S, Gaillard C, Roblin P. 2015. In vitro digestion of emulsions: high spatiotemporal resolution using synchrotron SAXS. Soft Matter 11:5365–73
    [Google Scholar]
87. Marze S, Meynier A, Anton M 2013. In vitro digestion of fish oils rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids studied in emulsion and at the oil-water interface. Food Funct 4:231–39
    [Google Scholar]
88. Mat DJL, Le Feunteun S, Michon C, Souchon I 2016. In vitro digestion of foods using pH-stat and the INFOGEST protocol: impact of matrix structure on digestion kinetics of macronutrients, proteins and lipids. Food Res. Int. 88:226–33
    [Google Scholar]
89. Mat DJL, Souchon I, Michon C, Le Feunteun S. 2020. Gastro-intestinal in vitro digestions of protein emulsions monitored by pH-stat: influence of structural properties and interplay between proteolysis and lipolysis. Food Chem. 311:125946
    [Google Scholar]
90. McClements DJ. 2010. Emulsion design to improve the delivery of functional lipophilic components. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 1:241–69
    [Google Scholar]
91. McClements DJ. 2018. Enhanced delivery of lipophilic bioactives using emulsions: a review of major factors affecting vitamin, nutraceutical, and lipid bioaccessibility. Food Funct 9:22–41
    [Google Scholar]
92. McIntyre I, O'Sullivan M, O'Riordan D. 2017. Altering the level of calcium changes the physical properties and digestibility of casein-based emulsion gels. Food Funct 8:1641–51
    [Google Scholar]
93. Minekus M, Alminger M, Alvito P, Ballance S, Bohn T et al. 2014. A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food: an international consensus. Food Funct 5:1113–24
    [Google Scholar]
94. Mortimer BC, Holthouse DJ, Martins IJ, Stick RV, Redgrave TG. 1994. Effects of triacylglycerol-saturated acyl chains on the clearance of chylomicron-like emulsions from the plasma of the rat. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1211:171–80
    [Google Scholar]
95. Moxon TE, Nimmegeers P, Telen D, Fryer PJ, van Impe J, Bakalis S. 2017. Effect of chyme viscosity and nutrient feedback mechanism on gastric emptying. Chem. Eng. Sci. 171:318–30
    [Google Scholar]
96. Mulet-Cabero AI, Rigby NM, Brodkorb A, Mackie AR. 2017. Dairy food structures influence the rates of nutrient digestion through different in vitro gastric behaviour. Food Hydrocoll. 67:63–73
    [Google Scholar]
97. Mun S, Choi Y, Kim YR. 2015. Lipase digestibility of the oil phase in a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 24:513–20
    [Google Scholar]
98. Mutsokoti L, Panozzo A, Pallares Pallares A, Jaiswal S, Van Loey A et al. 2017. Carotenoid bioaccessibility and the relation to lipid digestion: a kinetic study. Food Chem 232:124–34
    [Google Scholar]
99. Nakajima K, Tokita Y, Tanaka A. 2018. Hypothesis: postprandial remnant lipoproteins are the causal factors that induce the insulin resistance associated with obesity. Clin. Chim. Acta 485:126–32
    [Google Scholar]
100. Nguyen HT, Marquis M, Anton M, Marze S 2019a. Studying the real-time interplay between triglyceride digestion and lipophilic micronutrient bioaccessibility using droplet microfluidics. 1 Lab on a chip method. Food Chem 275:523–29
     [Google Scholar]
101. Nguyen HT, Marquis M, Anton M, Marze S 2019b. Studying the real-time interplay between triglyceride digestion and lipophilic micronutrient bioaccessibility using droplet microfluidics. 2 Application to various oils and (pro)vitamins. Food Chem 275:661–67
     [Google Scholar]
102. Nik AM, Corredig M, Wright AJ. 2011. Release of lipophilic molecules during in vitro digestion of soy protein-stabilized emulsions. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 55:S278–89
     [Google Scholar]
103. Niu ZG, Acevedo-Fani A, McDowell A, Barnett A, Loveday SM, Singh H. 2020. Nanoemulsion structure and food matrix determine the gastrointestinal fate and in vivo bioavailability of coenzyme Q10. J. Control. Release 327:444–55
     [Google Scholar]
104. O'Keefe JH, Bell DSH. 2007. Postprandial hyperglycemia/hyperlipidemia (postprandial dysmetabolism) is a cardiovascular risk factor. Am. J. Cardiol. 100:899–904
     [Google Scholar]
105. Pirillo A, Norata GD, Catapano AL. 2014. Postprandial lipemia as a cardiometabolic risk factor. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 30:1489–503
     [Google Scholar]
106. Prakash UNS, Srinivasan K. 2012. Fat digestion and absorption in spice-pretreated rats. J. Sci. Agric. 92:503–10
     [Google Scholar]
107. Pratt AC, Wattis JAD, Salter AM. 2015. Mathematical modelling of hepatic lipid metabolism. Math. Biosci. 262:167–81
     [Google Scholar]
108. Read NW, Aljanabi MN, Holgate AM, Barber DC, Edwards CA. 1986. Simultaneous measurement of gastric-emptying, small-bowel residence and colonic filling of a solid meal by the use of the gamma-camera. Gut 27:300–8
     [Google Scholar]
109. Ros E 2000. Intestinal absorption of triglyceride and cholesterol. Dietary and pharmacological inhibition to reduce cardiovascular risk. Atherosclerosis 151:357–79
     [Google Scholar]
110. Roy D, Ye AQ, Moughan PJ, Singh H. 2021. Impact of gastric coagulation on the kinetics of release of fat globules from milk of different species. Food Funct 12:1783–802
     [Google Scholar]
111. Salentinig S, Phan S, Hawley A, Boyd BJ. 2015. Self-assembly structure formation during the digestion of human breast milk. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54:1600–3
     [Google Scholar]
112. Salentinig S, Phan S, Khan J, Hawley A, Boyd BJ. 2013. Formation of highly organized nanostructures during the digestion of milk. ACS Nano 7:10904–11
     [Google Scholar]
113. Salentinig S, Sagalowicz L, Leser ME, Tedeschi C, Glatter O. 2011. Transitions in the internal structure of lipid droplets during fat digestion. Soft Matter 7:650–61
     [Google Scholar]
114. Salvia-Trujillo L, Verkempinck S, Rijal SK, Van Loey A, Grauwet T, Hendrickx M 2019. Lipid nanoparticles with fats or oils containing beta-carotene: storage stability and in vitro digestibility kinetics. Food Chem 278:396–405
     [Google Scholar]
115. Salvia-Trujillo L, Verkempinck SHE, Sun L, Van Loey AM, Grauwet T, Hendrickx ME 2017. Lipid digestion, micelle formation and carotenoid bioaccessibility kinetics: influence of emulsion droplet size. Food Chem 229:653–62
     [Google Scholar]
116. Santiago JSJ, Salvia-Trujillo L, Zucca R, Van Loey AM, Grauwet T, Hendrickx ME 2018. In vitro digestibility kinetics of oil-in-water emulsions structured by water-soluble pectin-protein mixtures from vegetable purees. Food Hydrocoll. 80:231–44
     [Google Scholar]
117. Sarkar A, Li HC, Cray D, Boxall S 2018. Composite whey protein-cellulose nanocrystals at oil-water interface: towards delaying lipid digestion. Food Hydrocoll. 77:436–44
     [Google Scholar]
118. Sarkar A, Murray B, Holmes M, Ettelaie R, Abdalla A, Yang XY. 2016. In vitro digestion of Pickering emulsions stabilized by soft whey protein microgel particles: influence of thermal treatment. Soft Matter 12:3558–69
     [Google Scholar]
119. Sarkar A, Zhang SN, Holmes M, Ettelaie R. 2019. Colloidal aspects of digestion of Pickering emulsions: experiments and theoretical models of lipid digestion kinetics. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 263:195–211
     [Google Scholar]
120. Scheuble N, Iles A, Wootton RCR, Windhab EJ, Fischer P, Elvira KS. 2017. Microfluidic technique for the simultaneous quantification of emulsion instabilities and lipid digestion kinetics. Anal. Chem. 89:9116–23
     [Google Scholar]
121. Scheuble N, Schaffner J, Schumacher M, Windhab EJ, Liu D et al. 2018. Tailoring emulsions for controlled lipid release: establishing in vitro-in vivo correlation for digestion of lipids. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10:17571–81
     [Google Scholar]
122. Singh H, Ye AQ, Horne D. 2009. Structuring food emulsions in the gastrointestinal tract to modify lipid digestion. Prog. Lipid Res. 48:92–100
     [Google Scholar]
123. Snyder WS, Cook MJ, Nasset ES, Karhausen LR, Parry Howells G, Tipton IH 1975. Report of the task group on reference man Rep., Int. Comm. Radiol. Prot. Stockholm, Swed: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/S0074-2740%2875%2980015-8
     [Google Scholar]
124. Strathe AB, Danfaer A, Chwalibog A. 2008. A dynamic model of digestion and absorption in pigs. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 143:328–71
     [Google Scholar]
125. Sun R, Xia Q 2020. In vitro digestion behavior of (W1/O/W2) double emulsions incorporated in alginate hydrogel beads: microstructure, lipolysis, and release. Food Hydrocoll. 107:105950
     [Google Scholar]
126. Tan YB, Li RY, Zhou HL, Liu JN, Mundo JM et al. 2020. Impact of calcium levels on lipid digestion and nutraceutical bioaccessibility in nanoemulsion delivery systems studied using standardized INFOGEST digestion protocol. Food Funct 11:174–86
     [Google Scholar]
127. Tan YB, Liu JN, Zhou HL, Mundo JM, McClements DJ. 2019. Impact of an indigestible oil phase (mineral oil) on the bioaccessibility of vitamin D-3 encapsulated in whey protein-stabilized nanoemulsions. Food Res. Int. 120:264–74
     [Google Scholar]
128. Thomson ABR, Keelan M, Clandinin MT, Walker K. 1986. Dietary fat selectively alters transport properties of rat jejunum. J. Clin. Investig. 77:279–88
     [Google Scholar]
129. Tso P, Karlstad MD, Bistrian BR, Demichele SJ. 1995. Intestinal digestion, absorption, and transport of structured triglycerides and cholesterol in rats. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 268:G568–77
     [Google Scholar]
130. Turnbaugh PJ, Hamady M, Yatsunenko T, Cantarel BL, Duncan A et al. 2009. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature 457:480–84
     [Google Scholar]
131. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI. 2006. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444:1027–31
     [Google Scholar]
132. Tzoumaki MV, Moschakis T, Scholten E, Biliaderis CG 2013. In vitro lipid digestion of chitin nanocrystal stabilized o/w emulsions. Food Funct 4:121–29
     [Google Scholar]
133. Van Oostrom A, Alipour A, Plokker TWM, Sniderman AD, Cabezas MC. 2007. The metabolic syndrome in relation to complement component 3 and postprandial lipemia in patients from an outpatient lipid clinic and healthy volunteers. Atherosclerosis 190:167–73
     [Google Scholar]
134. Verkempinck SHE, Salvia-Trujillo L, Denis S, Van Loey AM, Hendrickx ME, Grauwet T 2018a. Pectin influences the kinetics of in vitro lipid digestion in oil-in-water emulsions. Food Chem 262:150–61
     [Google Scholar]
135. Verkempinck SHE, Salvia-Trujillo L, Garcia MRI, Hendrickx ME, Grauwet T. 2019. From single to multiresponse modelling of food digestion kinetics: the case of lipid digestion. J. Food Eng. 260:40–49
     [Google Scholar]
136. Verkempinck SHE, Salvia-Trujillo L, Moens LG, Carrillo C, Van Loey AM et al. 2018b. Kinetic approach to study the relation between in vitro lipid digestion and carotenoid bioaccessibility in emulsions with different oil unsaturation degree. J. Funct. Foods 41:135–47
     [Google Scholar]
137. Verkempinck SHE, Salvia-Trujillo L, Moens LG, Charleer L, Van Loey AM et al. 2018c. Emulsion stability during gastrointestinal conditions effects lipid digestion kinetics. Food Chem 246:179–91
     [Google Scholar]
138. Westergaard H, Dietschy JM. 1976. Mechanism whereby bile-acid micelles increase rate of fatty-acid and cholesterol uptake into intestinal mucosal cell. J. Clin. Investig. 58:97–108
     [Google Scholar]
139. Wooster TJ, Day L, Xu M, Golding M, Oiseth S et al. 2014. Impact of different biopolymer networks on the digestion of gastric structured emulsions. Food Hydrocoll. 36:102–14
     [Google Scholar]
140. Wu AL, Clark SB, Holt PR 1975. Transmucosal triglyceride transport rates in proximal and distal rat intestine in vivo. J. Lipid Res. 16:251–57
     [Google Scholar]
141. Yao XL, Nie K, Chen Y, Jiang FT, Kuang Y et al. 2018. The influence of non-ionic surfactant on lipid digestion of gum Arabic stabilized oil-in-water emulsion. Food Hydrocoll. 74:78–86
     [Google Scholar]
142. Ye Z, Cao C, Li RZ, Cao PR, Li Q, Liu YF 2019a. Lipid composition modulates the intestine digestion rate and serum lipid status of different edible oils: a combination of in vitro and in vivo studies. Food Funct 10:1490–503
     [Google Scholar]
143. Ye Z, Li RZ, Cao C, Xu YJ, Cao PR et al. 2019b. Fatty acid profiles of typical dietary lipids after gastrointestinal digestion and absorbtion: a combination study between in-vitro and in-vivo. Food Chem 280:34–44
     [Google Scholar]
144. Zeevi D, Korem T, Zmora N, Israeli D, Rothschild D et al. 2015. Personalized nutrition by prediction of glycemic responses. Cell 163:1079–94
     [Google Scholar]
145. Zhang ZP, Jung KJ, Zhang RJ, Mundo JLM, McClements DJ. 2019. In situ monitoring of lipid droplet release from biopolymer microgels under simulated gastric conditions using magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy. Food Res. Int. 123:181–88
     [Google Scholar]