1932

Abstract

In 2015, the United Nations and the G20 put food loss and food waste on the global agenda. While progress has been made since then, the scale of the problem persists because food loss and food waste are measured together, not separately. The paucity of data also poses a challenge. This article reviews the measurements, causes, and determinants of food loss as well as the interventions to reduce it. The review finds that food loss is considered in isolation, even though it is one of the causes and results of how agrifood systems function. The review calls for improved microdata collection and standardized measurements to separate food loss from food waste. Such efforts would help integrate feedback loops and cascading effects across the value chain with agrifood systems to identify intervention hot spots, trade-offs, and synergies of interventions as well as the effects of food loss reduction on socioeconomic, environmental, and food security goals.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-resource-072722-025159
2023-10-05
2024-10-15
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/resource/15/1/annurev-resource-072722-025159.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-resource-072722-025159&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abbade EB. 2020. Estimating the nutritional loss and the feeding potential derived from food losses worldwide. World Dev 134:105038
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Abbas HK, Wilkinson JR, Zablotowicz RM, Accinelli C, Abel CA et al. 2009. Ecology of Aspergillusflavus, regulation of aflatoxin production, and management strategies to reduce aflatoxin contamination of corn. Toxin Rev 28:2/342–53
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Abdoulaye T, Ainembabazi JH, Alexander C, Baributsa D, Kadjo D et al. 2016. Post-harvest loss of maize and grain legumes in sub-Saharan Africa: insights from household survey data in seven countries Rep. EC-807-W, Purdue Ext. Agric. Econ., Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ec/ec-807-w.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Affognon H, Mutungia C, Sangingac P, Borgemeistera C. 2014. Unpacking postharvest losses in sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis. World Dev 66:49–68
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Afzaal M, Aamir M, Saeed F, Hussain M. 2021. Quality of fresh-cut products as affected by harvest and postharvest operations. Food Losses, Sustainable Postharvest and Food Technologies CM Galanakis 71–101. San Diego, CA: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Ahmed IU, Ying L, Mushtaq K, Bashir MK. 2015. An econometric estimation of post harvest losses of kinnow in Pakistan. Int. J. Econ. Commer. Manag. 3:5373–83
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Aidoo R, Danfoku RA, Mensah JO. 2014. Determinants of postharvest losses in tomato production in the Offinso North district of Ghana. J. Dev. Agric. Econ. 6:338–44
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Aigner DJ, Lovell CA, Schmidt P. 1977. Formulation and estimation of stochastic frontier production function models. J. Econom. 6:21–37
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Ali A, Chunping X, N'Banan Ouattara IM, Muhammad F 2021. Economic and environmental consequences of postharvest loss across food supply chain in the developing countries. J. Clean. Prod. 323:129146
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Alam MA, Hossen A, Islam AKMS, Alam M. 2018. Performance evaluation of power-operated reapers for harvesting rice at farmers’ field. J. Bangladesh Agric. Univ. 16:1144–50
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Alloway BJ. 2008. Micronutrient Deficiencies in Global Crop Production Dordrecht, Neth: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Ambler K, de Brauw A, Godlonton S. 2018. Measuring postharvest losses at the farm level in Malawi. Aust. J. Agric. Resour. Econ. 62:1139–60
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Ansah IGK, Tetteh BKD, Donkoh SA. 2017. Determinants and income effect of yam postharvest loss management: evidence from the Zabzugu District of Northern Ghana. Food Secur 9:611–20
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Baloch UK. 2010. Wheat: post-harvest operations. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad B Lewis, D Mejia 1–21. Rome: FAO https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_WHEAT.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Baoua I, Amadou L, Ousmane B, Baributsa D, Murdock L. 2014. PICS bags for post-harvest storage of maize grain in West Africa. J. Stored Prod. Res. 58:20–28
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Barrera EL, Hertel T. 2021. Global food waste across the income spectrum: implications for food prices, production and resource use. Food Policy 98:101874
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Basavaraja H, Mahajanashetti SB, Udagatti NC. 2007. Economic analysis of post-harvest losses in food grains in India: a case study of Karnataka. Agric. Econ. Res. Rev. 20:117–26
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Basavarajappa DN, Chinnappa B, Sannathimmappa HG. 2013. Farm machinery: the economics of paddy harvesting. Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng. 6:240–43
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bauchet J, Prieto S. 2021. Improved drying and storage practices that reduce aflatoxins in stored maize: experimental evidence from smallholders in Senegal. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 103:1296–316
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Bellemare M, Cakir M, Peterson H, Novak L, Rudi J. 2017. On the measurement of food waste. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 99:51148–58
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Benjamin JG, Nielsen DC, Vigil MF. 2003. Quantifying effects of soil conditions on plant growth and crop production. Geoderma 116:1/2137–48
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Beretta C, Stoessel F, Baier U, Hellweg S. 2013. Quantifying food losses and the potential for reduction in Switzerland. Waste Manag 33:3764–73
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Blakeney M. 2019. Food loss and waste and food security. Food Loss and Food Waste: Causes and Solutions1–26. Cheltenham, UK: Elgar
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Buzby JC, Wells HF, Hyman J. 2014. The estimated amount, value, and calories of postharvest food losses at the retail and consumer levels in the United States Rep. EIB-121, Econ. Res. Serv., US Dep. Agric. Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Cervini C, Verheecke-Vaessen C, He T, Mohammed A, Magan N, Medina A. 2021. Improvements within the peanut production chain to minimize aflatoxins contamination: an Ethiopian case study. Food Control 136:108622
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Charnes A, Cooper WW, Lewin AY, Seiford LM. 1978. Measuring the efficiency of decision making units. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 2:6429–44
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Charnes A, Cooper WW, Rhodes E. 1981. Evaluating program and managerial efficiency: an application of data envelopment analysis to program follow through. Manag. Sci. 27:6668–97
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Chauhan Y, Tatnell J, Krosch S, Karanja J, Gnonlonfin B et al. 2015. An improved simulation model to predict pre-harvest aflatoxin risk in maize. Field Crops Res 178:91–99
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Chegere MJ. 2018. Post-harvest losses reduction by small-scale maize farmers: the role of handling practices. Food Policy 77:103–15
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Chegere MJ, Eggert H, Soderbom M 2022. The effects of storage technology and training on postharvest losses, practices, and sales: evidence from small-scale farms in Tanzania. Econ. Dev. Cult. Change 70:2729–61
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Chen C, Chaudhary A, Mathys A. 2020. Nutritional and environmental losses embedded in global food waste. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 16:104912
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Compton JAF, Magrath PA, Addo S, Gbedevi SR, Amekupe S et al. 1997. The influence of insect damage on the market value of maize grain: a comparison of two research methods Paper presented at Premier Colloque International: Lutte contre les déprédateurs des denrées stockées par les agriculteurs en Afrique, Lomé, Togo Febr 10–14
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Cotty PJ, Jaime-Garcia R. 2007. Influences of climate on aflatoxin producing fungi and aflatoxin contamination. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 119:1/2109–15
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Crumpler K, Meybeck A, Federici S, Salvatore M, Damen B et al. 2019. Assessing the role of agriculture and land use in Nationally Determined Contributions Environ. Nat. Resour. Manag. Work. Pap. 76, FAO, Rome https://www.fao.org/3/ca5543en/ca5543en.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  35. de Groote H, Githinji PG, Munya BG, Ricker-Gilbert J. 2021. Economics of open-air maize drying in East Africa. J. Agric. Food Res. 5:100185
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M 2021a. Quantity and quality food losses across the value chain: a comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021.101958
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. 2021b. On the origins of food loss. Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy 43:2750–80
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Despoudi S, Papaioannou G, Saridakis G, Dani S. 2018. Does collaboration pay in agricultural supply chain? An empirical approach. Int. J. Prod. Res. 56:134396–417
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Doki NO, Eya CI, Tuughgba MF, Akahi OG, Ameh A. 2019. Determinants of post-harvest losses of orange in selected local government areas of Benue State. Int. J. New Econ. Soc. Sci. 10:2295–308
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Dsouza A, Mishra AK, Webster S. 2021. Vertical coordination and post-harvest losses: implications on food loss. Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy 45:1460–86
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Duflo E, Kremer M, Robinson J. 2011. Nudging farmers to use fertilizer: theory and experimental evidence from Kenya. Am. Econ. Rev. 101:62350–90
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Fabi C, Cachia F, Conforti P, English A, Moncayo JR. 2021. Improving data on food losses and waste: from theory to practice. Food Policy 98:101934
    [Google Scholar]
  43. FAO (Food Agric. Organ.) 2014. Definitional framework of food loss—global initiative on food loss and waste reduction Work. Pap., FAO, Rome. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/save-food/PDF/FLW_Definition_and_Scope_2014.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  44. FAO (Food Agric. Organ.) 2019. The state of food and agriculture 2019: moving forward on food loss and waste reduction Work. Pap., FAO, Rome https://www.fao.org/3/ca6030en/ca6030en.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Folayan JA. 2013. Determinant of post harvest losses of maize in Akure North local government area of Ondo State. J. Sustain. Soc. 2:12–19
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Gebretsadik D, Haji J, Tegegne B. 2019. Sesame post-harvest loss from small-scale producers in Kafta Humera District, Ethiopia. J. Dev. Agric. Econ. 11:233–42
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Ghorbani R, Wilcockson S, Koocheki A, Leifert C. 2008. Soil management for sustainable crop disease control: a review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 6:3149–62
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Gitonga ZM, de Groote H, Kassie M, Tefera T 2013. Impact of metal silos on households’ maize storage, storage losses and food security: an application of a propensity score matching. Food Policy 43:44–55
    [Google Scholar]
  49. González-Estrada R, Blancas-Benitez F, Aguirre-Güitrón L, Hernandez-Montiel L, Moreno-Hernández C et al. 2021. Alternative management technologies for postharvest disease control. Food Losses, Sustainable Postharvest and Food Technologies CM Galanakis 153–90. San Diego, CA: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U, van Otterdijk R, Meybeck A. 2011. Global food losses and food waste: extent, causes and prevention Study presented at Interpack 2011 Düsseldorf, Ger: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Hengsdijk H, de Boer WJ. 2017. Post-harvest management and post-harvest losses of cereals in Ethiopia. Food Secur 9:5945–58
    [Google Scholar]
  52. HLPE (High Level Panel Experts Food Secur. Nutr.) 2014. Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food systems: a report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition Rep. 8, Comm. World Food Secur Rome: https://www.fao.org/3/i3901e/i3901e.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hodges RJ, Bernard M, Rembold F. 2014. APHLIS: postharvest cereal losses in sub-Saharan Africa, their estimation, assessment and reduction Eur. Sci. Technol. Res. Ser. 26897, Publ. Off. Luxembourg:
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Hodges RJ, Buzby JC, Bennett B. 2011. Postharvest losses and waste in developed and less developed countries: opportunities to improve resource use. J. Agric. Sci. 149:Suppl. 137–45
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Hoffmann V, Mutiga SK, Harvey JW, Nelson RJ, Milgroom MG. 2020. Observability of food safety losses in maize: evidence from Kenya. Food Policy 98:101895
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Huber D, Römheld V, Weinmann M. 2012. Relationship between nutrition, plant diseases and pests. Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants P Marschner 283–98. Amsterdam: Elsevier. , 3rd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Ismail JI, Changalima IA. 2019. Postharvest losses in maize: determinants and effects on profitability of processing agribusiness enterprises. East Afr. J. Soc. Appl. Sci. 1:2203–11
    [Google Scholar]
  58. John A. 2014. Rodent outbreaks and rice pre-harvest losses in Southeast Asia. Food Secur 6:2249–60
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Kader A. 2009. Postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables in developing countries: a review of the literature Paper presented at Univ. Calif., Davis, Novemb. 10
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Kadjo D, Ricker-Gilbert J, Alexander C 2016. Estimating price discounts for low-quality maize in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Benin. World Dev 77:115–28
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Kadjo D, Ricker-Gilbert J, Alexander C, Tahirou A 2013. Effects of storage losses and grain management practices on storage: evidence from maize production in Benin Paper presented at Agricultural & Applied Economics Association's 2013 AAEA & CAES Joint Annual Meeting Washington, DC: Aug 4–6. https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/150522/files/Effects%20of%20Storage%20losses%20and%20Grain%20Management_Didier%20Kadjo_ID%20Number_60371.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Kaminski J, Christiaensen L. 2014. Post-harvest loss in sub-Saharan Africa: What do producers say?. Clim. Change Glob. Food Secur. 3:149–58
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Kang H, Suh DH. 2023. Exploring the dynamic effects of agricultural subsidies on food loss: implications for sustainable food security. Sustainability 15:42886
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Karthika KS, Rashmi I, Parvathi MS 2018. Biological functions, uptake and transport of essential nutrients in relation to plant growth. Plant Nutrients and Abiotic Stress Tolerance M Hasanuzzaman, M Fujita, H Oku, K Nahar, B Hawrylak-Nowak 1–49. Singapore: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Khatun M, Rahman M. 2019. Quantifying postharvest loss of brinjal: a farm level study in Bangladesh. J. Bangladesh Agric. Univ. 17:4454–60
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Kumar D, Kalita P 2017. Reducing postharvest losses during storage of grain crops to strengthen food security in developing countries. Foods 6:18
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Kuiper M, Cui HD. 2021. Using food loss reduction to reach food security and environmental objectives—a search for promising leverage points. Food Policy 98:101915
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Kummu M, de Moel H, Porkka M, Siebert S, Varis O, Ward PJ. 2012. Lost food, wasted resources: global food supply chain losses and their impacts on freshwater, cropland and fertilizer use. Sci. Total Environ. 438:477–89
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Kusumastuti RD, van Donk DP, Teunter R. 2016. Crop-related harvesting and processing planning: a review. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 174:76–92
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Lee J, Gereffi G, Beauvais J. 2012. Global value chains and agrifood standards: challenges and possibilities for smallholders in developing countries. PNAS 109:3112326–31
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Lipinski B, Hanson C, Lomax J, Kitinoja L, Waite R, Searchinger T. 2013. Reducing food loss and waste Creat. Sustain. Future Work. Pap. Install. 2, World Resour. Inst. Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Maziku P. 2020. Determinants for post-harvest losses in maize production for smallholder farmers in Tanzania. Afr. J. Appl. Res. 5:11–11
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Minor T, Astill G, Raszap Skorbiansky S, Thornsbury S, Buzby JC et al. 2020. Economic drivers of food loss at the farm and pre-retail sectors: a look at the produce supply chain in the United States Econ. Inf. Bull. 216, Econ. Res. Serv., US Dep. Agric Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Minten B, Reardon T, Das Gupta S, Dinghuan J, Murshid AS 2016. Wastage in food value chains in developing countries: evidence from the potato sector in Asia. Food Security in a Food Abundant World: An Individual Country Perspective R Kennedy, T Schmitz 225–38. Bingley, UK: Emerald. Front. Econ. Glob. Vol. 16
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Monier V, Shailendra M, Escalon V, O'Connor C, Gibon T et al. 2010. Preparatory study on food waste across EU 27. Final Rep., Eur. Comm. Dir. C, Brussels https://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/pdf/bio_foodwaste_report.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Mvumi BM, Stathers TE. 2015. Food security challenges in sub-Saharan Africa: the potential contribution of postharvest skills, science and technology in closing the gap. Proceedings of the 11th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection32–43. Manhattan: Kan. State Univ https://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/15547/1/15547%20STATHERS_Food_Security_Challenges_2015.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Ndegwa MK, de Groote H, Gitonga ZM, Bruce AY. 2016. Effectiveness and economics of hermetic bags for maize storage: results of a randomized controlled trial in Kenya. Crop Prot 90:17–26
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Ngowi ER, Selejio O. 2019. Post-harvest loss and adoption of improved post-harvest storage technologies by smallholder maize farmers in Tanzania. Afr. J. Econ. Rev 7:1 https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajer/article/view/182561
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Oerke EC. 2006. Crop losses to pests. J. Agric. Sci. 144:131–43
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Oerke EC, Dehne HW, Schönbeck F, Weber A. 1994. Crop Production and Crop Protection: Estimated Losses in Major Food and Cash Crops Amsterdam: Elsevier
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Omotilewa OJ, Ricker-Gilbert J, Ainembabazi JH, Shively GE. 2018. Does improved storage technology promote modern input use and food security? Evidence from a randomized trial in Uganda. J. Dev. Econ. 135:176–98
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Paneru R, Paudel GP, Thapa R. 2018. Determinants of post-harvest maize losses by pests in mid hills of Nepal. Int. J. Agric. Environ. Biores. 3:1110–18
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Philippidis G, Sartori M, Ferrari E, M'Barek R 2019. Waste not, want not: a bio-economic impact assessment of household food waste reductions in the EU. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 146:514–22
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Prusky D. 2011. Reduction of the incidence of postharvest quality losses, and future prospects. Food Secur 3:4463–74
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Read QD, Muth MK. 2021. Financial costs and environmental benefits of four food waste interventions: Is food waste reduction a “win-win”?. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 168:105448
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Reddy PP. 2017. Fertilizer management. Agro-Ecological Approaches to Pest Management for Sustainable Agriculture61–75. Singapore: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Rengel Z 2020. Achieving Sustainable Crop Nutrition London: Burleigh Dodds Sci.
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Reutter B, Lant P, Reynolds C, Lane J. 2017. Food waste consequences: environmentally extended input-output as a framework for analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 153:506–14
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Ricker-Gilbert J, Omotilewa OJ, Kadjo D. 2022. The economics of postharvest loss and loss-preventing technologies in developing countries. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ. 14:243–65
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Rolle RS 2006. Improving postharvest management and marketing in the Asia-Pacific region: issues and challenges trends. Postharvest Management of Fruit and Vegetables in the Asia-Pacific Region RS Rolle 23–31. Tokyo: Asian Product. Organ.
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Rosegrant MW, Magalhaes E, Valmonte-Santos RA, Mason-D'Croz D 2018. Returns to investment in reducing postharvest food losses and increasing agricultural productivity growth. Prioritizing Development: A Cost Benefit Analysis of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals B Lomborg 322–38. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Savary S, Ficke A, Aubertot J-N, Hollier C 2012. Crop losses due to diseases and their implications for global food production losses and food security. Food Secur 4:4519–37
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Schuster M, Torero M. 2016. Toward a sustainable food system: reducing food loss and waste. 2016 Global Food Policy Report22–31. Washington, DC: Int. Food Policy Res. Inst http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15738coll2/id/130211
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Seetha A, Munthali W, Msere HW, Swai E, Muzanila Y et al. 2017. Occurrence of aflatoxins and its management in diverse cropping systems of central Tanzania. Mycotoxin Res 33:4323–31
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Sheahan M, Barrett C. 2017. Review: food loss and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy 70:1–12
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Shee A, Mayanja S, Simba E, Stathers TE, Bechoff A, Bennett B 2019. Determinants of postharvest losses along smallholder producers maize and Sweetpotato value chains: an ordered probit analysis. Food Secur 11:1101–20
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Shepherd A. 1997. Market information services: theory and practice Agric. Serv. Bull. 125 FAO, Rome
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Stathers TE, Holcroft D, Kitinoja L, Mvumi BM, English A et al. 2020. A scoping review of interventions for crop postharvest loss reduction in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Nat. Sustain. 3:10821–35
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Strange RN, Scott PR. 2005. Plant disease: a threat to global food security. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 43:83–116
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Stuart T. 2009. Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal. London: Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Tefera T. 2012. Post-harvest losses in African maize in the face of increasing food shortage. Food Secur 4:2267–77
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Teng PS 1987. Crop Loss Assessment and Pest Management St. Paul, MN: Am. Phytopathol. Soc.
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Teng PS, Krupa SV, eds. 1980. Crop loss assessment: proceedings of E.C. Stakman Commemorative Symposium Misc. Publ. 7, Minn. Agric. Exp. Station, Univ. Minn., St. Paul https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/110181
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Tsolakis NK, Keramydas CA, Toka AK, Aidonis DA, Iakovou ET. 2014. Agrifood supply chain management: a comprehensive hierarchical decision-making framework and a critical taxonomy. Biosyst. Eng. 120:47–64
    [Google Scholar]
  105. UNEP (U. N. Environ. Programme) 2021. Food waste index report 2021. Rep UNEP, Nairobi https://www.unep.org/resources/report/unep-food-waste-index-report-2021
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Venkat K. 2011. The climate change and economic impacts of food waste in the United States. Int. J. Food Syst. Dyn. 2:431–46
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Verghese K, Lewis H, Lockrey S, Williams H. 2015. Packaging's role in minimizing food loss and waste across the supply chain. Packag. Technol. Sci. 28:7603–20
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Weiland JE. 2012. Soil-pest relationships. Forest Nurs. Pests 680:16–19. https://rngr.net/publications/forest-nursery-pests/soil-pest-relationships/at_download/file
    [Google Scholar]
  109. World Bank 2011. Missing food: the case of post-harvest grain losses in sub-Saharan Africa Rep. 60371-AFR, World Bank Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  110. WWF (World Wildl. Fund) 2021. Driven to waste: the global impact of food loss and waste on farms Tech. Rep., WWF Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E et al. 2017. Missing food, missing data? A critical review of global food losses and food waste data. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51:126618–33
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-resource-072722-025159
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-resource-072722-025159
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error