1932

Abstract

We discuss the challenges confronting environmental governance caused by the increasing connectivity of resource-use systems and the growing functional interdependencies of ecological and social systems. We take as a point of departure the case of the Xingu Indigenous Park (PIX) in Brazil and its surrounding agro-industrial region. This case provides a basis for reviewing the literature on resource governance, including both points of consensus and contentious issues. We argue that no fixed spatial or temporal level is appropriate for governing ecosystems and their services sustainably, effectively, and equitably. We point to the need to recognize the multilevel nature of such problems and the role of institutions in facilitating cross-level environmental governance as an important form of social capital that is essential for the long-term protection of ecosystems and the well-being of different populations.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.environ.020708.100707
2009-11-21
2024-10-16
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/energy/34/1/annurev.environ.020708.100707.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.environ.020708.100707&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Castiglione D, van Deth JW, Wolleb G. 1.  2008. The Handbook of Social Capital Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  2. Young OR. 2.  2006. Vertical interplay among scale-dependent environmental and resource regimes. Ecol. Soc. 11:127 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art27/ [Google Scholar]
  3. Moran EF, Ostrom E. 3.  2005. Seeing the Forest and the Trees Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  4. Gibson CC, McKean MA, Ostrom E. 4.  2000. People and Forests Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  5. Cash DW, Adger WN, Berkes F, Garden P, Lebel L. 5.  et al. 2006. Scale and cross-scale dynamics; governance and information in a multilevel world. Ecol. Soc. 11:28 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/art8/ [Google Scholar]
  6. Dietz T, Ostrom E, Stern P. 6.  2003. The struggle to govern the commons. Science 302:1907–12 [Google Scholar]
  7. Ostrom E. 7.  1990. Governing the Commons Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  8. Niamir-Fuller M. 8.  1998. The resilience of pastoral herding in Sahelian Africa. See Ref. 144 250–84
  9. Trawick PB. 9.  2001. Successfully governing the commons: principles of social organization in an Andean irrigation system. Hum. Ecol. 29:1–25 [Google Scholar]
  10. Lemos MC, Agrawal A. 10.  2006. Environmental governance. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 31:297–325 [Google Scholar]
  11. Berkes F. 11.  2006. From community-based resource management to complex systems: the scale issue and marine commons. Ecol. Soc. 11:145 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art45/ [Google Scholar]
  12. Keohane RO, Ostrom E. 12.  1995. Local Commons and Global Interdependence London: Sage [Google Scholar]
  13. Young OR. 13.  2002. The Institutional Dimensions of Environmental Change Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  14. Young OR. 14.  2005. Why is there no unified theory of environmental governance?. Handbook of Global Environmental Politics P Dauvergne 170–84 Cheltenham, UK: Elgar [Google Scholar]
  15. Adger WN, Brown K, Tompkins EL. 15.  2005. The political economy of cross-scale networks in resource co-management. Ecol. Soc. 10:29 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss2/art9/ [Google Scholar]
  16. Acheson JM. 16.  2006. Institutional failure in resource management. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 35:117–34 [Google Scholar]
  17. Berkes F. 17.  2007. Community-based conservation in a globalized world. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:15188–93 [Google Scholar]
  18. Ostrom E. 18.  2007. A diagnostic approach for going beyond panaceas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:15181–87 [Google Scholar]
  19. Young OR. 19.  1994. The problem of scale in human-environment relations. J. Theor. Polit. 6:429–47 [Google Scholar]
  20. Young OR. 20.  2003. Environmental governance: the role of institutions in causing and confronting environmental problems. Int. Environ. Agreem.: Polit., Law Econ. 3:377–93 [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. Instituto Socioambiental 2003. O Xingu na mira da soja http://www.socioambiental.org/esp/soja/1.shtm [Google Scholar]
  22. 22. Y Ikatu Xingu 2007. Y Ikatu Xingu: a campaign of shared socio-environmental responsibility to protect the sources of the xingu (May issue). http://www.yikatuxingu.org.br/revista/revista-ingles.pdf [Google Scholar]
  23. Villas-Bôas A, Jardim A, Gauditano de Cerqueira C, Thomaz FL, Mosimann da Silva G. 23.  et al. 2000. Diagnóstico Socioambiental da Região dos Formadores do Xingu São Paulo, Braz.: Instituto Socioambiental [Google Scholar]
  24. Brondizio ES. 24.  2006. Landscapes of the past, footprints of the future. Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology W Balée, C Erikson 365–405 New York: Columbia Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  25. Sanches RA, Villas-Bôas A. 25.  2005. Planejando a gestão em um cenário socioambiental de mudanças: o caso da bacia do Rio Xingu. Revista Brasileira Administração Pública 39:365–79 [Google Scholar]
  26. Young OR. 26.  2002. Institutional interplay. See Ref. 80 263–91
  27. Viveiros de Castro E. 26a.  1996. Images of nature and society in Amazonian ethnology. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 25:179–200 [Google Scholar]
  28. Brondizio ES, Moran EF. 27.  2008. Human dimensions of climate change: the vulnerability of small farmers in the Amazon. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 363:1803–9 [Google Scholar]
  29. Clark WC, Dickson NM. 28.  2003. Sustainability science. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:8059–61 [Google Scholar]
  30. 29. Millenn. Ecosyst. Assess 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis WV Reid, HA Mooney, A Cropper, D Capistrano, SR Carpenter et al. Washington, DC: Island [Google Scholar]
  31. Ostrom E, Schroeder L, Wynne S. 30.  1993. Institutional Incentives and Sustainable Development Boulder, CO: Westview [Google Scholar]
  32. Bates RH. 31.  1990. Capital, kinship, and conflict. Can. J. Afr. Stud. 24:151–64 [Google Scholar]
  33. Pretty J. 32.  2003. Social capital and the collective management of resources. Science 302:1912–14 [Google Scholar]
  34. Adger WN. 33.  2003. Social capital, collective action and adaptation to climate change. Econ. Geogr. 79:387–404 [Google Scholar]
  35. Bourdieu P. 34.  1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice Transl. R Nice. Cambridge Stud. Soc. Cult. Anthropol., ed. E Gellner, J Goody, S Gudeman, M Herzfeld, J Parry Cambridge, UK:Cambridge Univ. Press (original Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique, précé de trois études d'ethnologie kabyle, 1972, Librairie Droz, Switz.) [Google Scholar]
  36. Bourdieu P. 35.  1986. The forms of capital. Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education JG Richardson 241–58 Westport, CT: Greenwood [Google Scholar]
  37. Loury GC. 36.  1977. A dynamic theory of racial income differences. Women, Minorities, and Employment Discrimination PA Wallace, AM LaMond 153–86 Lexington, MA: Lexington [Google Scholar]
  38. Coleman JS. 37.  1988. Social capital in the creation of human capital. Am. J. Sociol. 94:Suppl.S95–120 [Google Scholar]
  39. Putnam RD. 38.  1993. The prosperous community. Am. Prospect 13:35–42 [Google Scholar]
  40. Putnam RD. 39.  1995. Bowling alone: America's declining social capital. J. Democr. 6:65–78 [Google Scholar]
  41. Putnam RD, Leonardi R, Nanetti R. 40.  1993. Making Democracy Work Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  42. Portes A. 41.  1998. Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 24:1–24 [Google Scholar]
  43. Arrow K. 42.  1999. Observations on social capital. Social Capital P Dasgupta, I Serageldin 3–5 Washington, DC: World Bank [Google Scholar]
  44. Fine B. 43.  2001. Social Capital versus Social Theory London: Routledge [Google Scholar]
  45. Ostrom E, Ahn TK. 44.  2003. Foundations of Social Capital Cheltenham, UK: Elgar [Google Scholar]
  46. Durlauf SN. 45.  2002. Bowling alone. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 47:259–74 [Google Scholar]
  47. Lachmann LM. 46.  1978. Capital and Its Structure Kansas City: Sheed Andrews & McMeel [Google Scholar]
  48. Becker GS. 47.  1962. Investment in human capital: a theoretical analysis. J. Polit. Econ. 70:9–49 [Google Scholar]
  49. Becker GS. 48.  1964. Human Capital New York: Columbia Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  50. Helliwell JF. 49.  2001. The Contribution of Human and Social Capital to Sustained Economic Growth and Well-Being Ottawa, Can.: Ottawa Hum. Resour. Dev./Organ. Econ. Co-op. Dev. [Google Scholar]
  51. Schultz TW. 50.  1981. Investing in People: The Economics of Population Quality Berkeley, CA: Univ. Calif. Press [Google Scholar]
  52. Coleman JS. 51.  1987. Norms as social capital. Economic Imperialism G Radnitzky, P Bernholz 133–55 New York: Paragon [Google Scholar]
  53. Ostrom E. 52.  1998. A behavioral approach to the rational choice theory of collective action. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 92:1–22 [Google Scholar]
  54. Coleman JS. 53.  1988. Free riders and zealots: the role of social networks. Sociol. Theory 6:52–57 [Google Scholar]
  55. Lam WF. 54.  1998. Governing Irrigation Systems in Nepal: Institutions, Infrastructure, and Collective Action Oakland, CA: ICS Press [Google Scholar]
  56. Shivakoti GP, Vermillion DL, Lam W-F, Ostrom E, Pradhan U, Yoder R. 55.  2005. Asian Irrigation in Transition: Responding to Challenges New Delhi, India: Sage [Google Scholar]
  57. Brehm J, Rahn W. 56.  1997. Individual-level evidence for the causes and consequences of social capital. Am. J. Polit. Sci. 41:999–1023 [Google Scholar]
  58. Oakerson R. 57.  1993. Reciprocity: a bottom-up view of political development. Rethinking Institutional Analysis and Development: Issues, Alternatives, and Choices V Ostrom, D Feeny, P Hartmut 141–58 San Francisco: ICS Press [Google Scholar]
  59. Richerson PJ, Boyd RT, Henrich J. 58.  2003. Cultural evolution of human cooperation. Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation P Hammerstein 19373–404 Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  60. Evans P. 59.  1997. State-Society Synergy: Government and Social Capital in Development Berkeley, CA: Univ. Calif. Press [Google Scholar]
  61. Tucker CM. 60.  2008. Changing Forests: Collective Action, Common Property, and Coffee in Honduras Dordrecht, Neth.: Springer [Google Scholar]
  62. Yoder R. 61.  1994. Locally Managed Irrigation Systems Colombo, Sri Lanka: Int. Irrig. Manag. Inst. [Google Scholar]
  63. North DC. 62.  1990. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  64. Kottak C. 63.  1990. Culture and “Economic Development.”. Am. Anthropol. 92:723–31 [Google Scholar]
  65. Brondizio ES. 64.  2008. The Amazonian caboclo and the Açaí Palm: forest farmers in the global market. New York: N.Y. Bot. Gard. [Google Scholar]
  66. Bhattacharya DK, Brondizio ES, Spiemberg M, Ghosh A, Traverse M. 65.  et al. 2005. Cultural services of ecosystems. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Policy Responses 3 Millenn. Ecosyst. Assess. Ser., ed. K Chopra, R Leemans, P Kumar, H Simons 401–22 Washington, DC: Island [Google Scholar]
  67. Annen K. 66.  2003. Social capital, inclusive networks, and economic performance. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 50:449–63 [Google Scholar]
  68. Commons JR. 67.  1968. Legal Foundations of Capitalism Madison: Univ. Wisconsin Press [Google Scholar]
  69. Henton D, Walesh K. 68.  1997. The age of the civic entrepreneur. Natl. Civic Rev. 86:149–56 [Google Scholar]
  70. Kuhnert S. 69.  2001. An evolutionary theory of collective action. Const. Polit. Econ. 12:13–29 [Google Scholar]
  71. Chang C, Turnbull GK. 70.  2002. Bureaucratic behavior in the local public sector: a revealed preference approach. Public Choice 113:191–209 [Google Scholar]
  72. Moe TM. 71.  2006. Political control and the power of the agent. J. Law Econ. Organ. 22:1–29 [Google Scholar]
  73. Marshall GR. 72.  2005. Economics for Collaborative Environmental Management: Renegotiating the Commons London: Earthscan [Google Scholar]
  74. Marshall GR. 73.  2008. Nesting, subsidiarity, and community-based environmental governance beyond the local level. Int. J. Commons 2:75–97 [Google Scholar]
  75. Rothstein B. 74.  2005. Social Traps and the Problem of Trust (Theories of Institutional Design) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  76. Ensminger J. 75.  2001. Reputations, trust, and the principal agent problem. Trust in Society KS Cook 185–201 New York: Russell Sage Found. [Google Scholar]
  77. Berkes F. 76.  2008. Commons in a multi-level world. Int. J. Commons 2:1–6 [Google Scholar]
  78. Armitage D. 77.  2008. Governance and the commons in a multi-level world. Int. J. Commons 2:7–32 [Google Scholar]
  79. Baland J-M, Platteau J-P. 78.  1996. Halting Degradation of Natural Resources: Is There a Role for Rural Communities? Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  80. Acheson JM. 79.  2003. Capturing the Commons: Devising Institutions to Manage the Maine Lobster Industry Hanover, NH: Univ. Press N. Engl. [Google Scholar]
  81. Ostrom E, Dietz T, Dolšak N, Stern PC, Weber EU. 80.  2002. The Drama of the Commons Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press [Google Scholar]
  82. Breitmeier H, Young OR, Zürn M. 81.  2006. Analyzing International Environmental Regimes Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  83. Miles E, Underdal A, Andresen S, Wettestad J, Skjærseth J, Carlin E. 82.  2002. Environmental Regime Effectiveness Cambridge: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  84. Young OR. 83.  1999. Governance in World Affairs Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  85. Berkes F. 84.  2002. Cross-scale institutional linkages. See Ref. 80 293–321
  86. Brock WA, Carpenter SR. 85.  2007. Panaceas and diversification of environmental policy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:15206–12 [Google Scholar]
  87. Gibson CC, Ostrom E, Ahn TK. 86.  2000. The concept of scale and the human dimensions of global change. Ecol. Econ. 32:217–39 [Google Scholar]
  88. Gupta J. 87.  2008. Global change: analyzing scale and scaling in global governance. See Ref. 125 225–58
  89. Ostrom E, Burger J, Field C, Norgaard RB, Policansky D. 88.  1999. Revisiting the commons. Science 284:278–82 [Google Scholar]
  90. Young OR, Berkhout F, Gallopin GC, Janssen MA, Ostrom E, van der Leeuw S. 89.  2006. The globalization of socio-ecological systems: an agenda for scientific research. Glob. Environ. Change 16:304–16 [Google Scholar]
  91. Clark WC. 90.  2000. Environmental globalization. Governance in a Globalizing World JS Nye Jr, JD Donahue 486–108 Washington, DC: Brookings [Google Scholar]
  92. Steffen W, Sanderson A, Tyson PD, Jager J, Matson PM. 91.  et al. 2004. Global Change and the Earth System New York: Springer-Verlag [Google Scholar]
  93. Nelson D, Adger WN, Brown K. 92.  2007. Adaptation to environmental change: contributions of a resilience framework. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 32:395–419 [Google Scholar]
  94. Briden JC, Downing TE. 93.  2002. Managing the Earth Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  95. Schellnhuber J, Crutzen P, Clark WC, Claussen M, Field H. 94.  2004. Earth System Analysis for Sustainability Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  96. Wilson J. 95.  2002. Scientific uncertainty, complex systems, and the design of common-pool institutions. See Ref. 80 327–59
  97. Kinzig A, Starrett D, Arrow K, Aniyar S, Bolin B. 96.  et al. 2003. Coping with uncertainty: a call for a new science-policy forum. AMBIO 32:330–35 [Google Scholar]
  98. Adger WN, Vincent K. 97.  2005. Uncertainty in adaptive capacity. C. R. Geosci. 337:399–410 [Google Scholar]
  99. Pahl-Wostl C, Kabat P, Möltgen J. 98.  2008. Adaptive and Integrated Water Management: Coping with Complexity and Uncertainty Berlin: Springer [Google Scholar]
  100. Gunderson LH, Holling CC. 99.  2002. Panarchy Washington, DC: Island [Google Scholar]
  101. Walker B, Salt D. 100.  2006. Resilience Thinking Washington, DC: Island [Google Scholar]
  102. Walker B, Anderies JM, Kinzig AP, Ryan P. 101.  2006. Exploring Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems: Comparative Studies and Theory Development Collingwood, Aust.: Aust. Commonw. Sci. Res. Organ. [Google Scholar]
  103. Liu J, Dietz T, Carpenter SR, Alberti M, Folke C. 102.  et al. 2007. Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science 317:1513–16 [Google Scholar]
  104. Basurto X. 103.  2005. How locally designed access and use controls can prevent the tragedy of the commons in a Mexican small-scale fishing community. Soc. Nat. Resour. 18:643–59 [Google Scholar]
  105. Basurto X. 104.  2008. Biological and ecological mechanisms supporting marine self-governance: the Seri Callo de Hacha Fishery. Ecol. Soc. 13:220 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art20/ [Google Scholar]
  106. McCay B. 104a.  1998. Oyster Wars and the Public Trust: Property, Law and Ecology in New Jersey History Tucson: Univ. Ariz. Press [Google Scholar]
  107. Berkes F, Hughes TP, Steneck RS, Wilson JA, Bellwood DR. 105.  et al. 2006. Globalization, roving bandits, and marine resources. Science 311:1557–58 [Google Scholar]
  108. Olson M. 106.  2000. Power and Prosperity New York: Basic Books [Google Scholar]
  109. 107. Arctic Clim. Impact Assess. (ACIA) 2004. Impacts of a Warming Arctic Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  110. Bardhan P, Mookherjee D. 108.  2006. Decentralization and Local Governance in Developing Countries: A Comparative Perspective Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  111. Webb EL, Shivakoti GP. 109.  2008. Decentralization, Forests and Rural Communities: Policy Outcome in South and Southeast Asia Los Angeles: Sage [Google Scholar]
  112. Young OR, Agrawal A, King LA, Sand PH, Underdal A, Wasson M. 110.  2005. Institutional Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Science Plan, 2nd. ed. rev. by H Schroeder. IHDP Rep. 16 Bonn, Ger.: Int. Hum. Dimens. Program [Google Scholar]
  113. Oberthür S, Gehring T. 111.  2006. Institutional Interactions in Global Environmental Governance Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  114. Prud'homme R. 112.  1994. On the dangers of decentralization Work. Pap. 1252, World Bank Policy Res Washington, DC: [Google Scholar]
  115. Ribot JC. 113.  2002. Democratic Decentralization of Natural Resources Washington, DC: World Resour. Inst. [Google Scholar]
  116. Wunsch JS, Olowu D. 114.  1995. The Failure of the Centralized State: Institutions and Self-Governance in Africa San Francisco: Inst. Contemp. Stud. [Google Scholar]
  117. Meinzen-Dick R. 115.  2007. Beyond panaceas in water institutions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:15200–5 [Google Scholar]
  118. Schlager E, Heikkila T. 116.  2007. Strengthening cross-state linkages to improve watershed governance Presented at Am. Polit. Sci. Assoc. Annu. Meet., Chicago, Aug. 30–Sept. 2 [Google Scholar]
  119. Jänicke M, Weidner H. 117.  1997. National Environmental Policies: A Comparative Study of Capacity-Building Berlin: Springer [Google Scholar]
  120. Schreurs M. 118.  2002. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany and the United States Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  121. de Castro F, Siqueira AD, Brondizio ES, Ferreira LC. 119.  2006. The use and misuse of the “traditional” concept in environmental conservation in the Ribeira Valley, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Ambiente e Sociedade IX:23–39 [Google Scholar]
  122. Andersson K. 120.  2003. What motivates municipal governments?. J. Environ. Dev. 12:5–27 [Google Scholar]
  123. Andersson K. 121.  2004. Who talks with whom?. World Dev. 32:233–49 [Google Scholar]
  124. Charnley S, Poe MR. 122.  2007. Community forestry in theory and practice: Where are we now?. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 36:301–36 [Google Scholar]
  125. Agrawal A, Ostrom E. 123.  2001. Collective action, property rights, and decentralization in resource use in India and Nepal. Polit. Soc. 29:485–514 [Google Scholar]
  126. Agrawal A, Ostrom E. 124.  2008. Decentralization and community-based forestry: learning from experience. See Ref. 109 44–67
  127. Young OR, King L, Schroeder H. 125.  2008. Institutions and Environmental Change: Principal Findings, Applications, and Research Frontiers Cambridge: MIT Press [Google Scholar]
  128. Karlsson S. 126.  2000. Multilayered governance: pesticides in the South PhD diss Linköping Univ., Linköping, Swed. [Google Scholar]
  129. Folke C, Colding J, Berkes F. 127.  2003. Synthesis: building resilience and adaptive capacity in social-ecological systems. Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change F Berkes, J Colding, C Folke 352–87 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  130. Ostrom E. 128.  2005. Understanding Institutional Diversity Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  131. Costanza R, Low BS, Ostrom E, Wilson J. 129.  2001. Institutions, Ecosystems, and Sustainability Boca Raton, FL: Lewis [Google Scholar]
  132. McGinnis MD. 130.  1999. Polycentricity and Local Public Economies Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan Press [Google Scholar]
  133. McGinnis MD. 131.  1999. Polycentric Governance and Development Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press [Google Scholar]
  134. Castro F, McGraph D. 132.  2003. Community-based management of lakes and sustainability of floodplain resources in the lower Amazon. Hum. Organ. 62:123–33 [Google Scholar]
  135. Nagendra H. 133.  2007. Drivers of reforestation in human-dominated forests. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:15218–23 [Google Scholar]
  136. Norse E, Crowder L. 134.  2005. Conservation Biology: The Success of Maintaining the Sea's Biodiversity Washington, DC: Island Press [Google Scholar]
  137. Young OR, Osherenko G, Ekstrom J, Crowder LB, Ogden J. 135.  et al. 2007. Solving the crisis in ocean governance: place-based management of marine ecosystems. Environment 49:20–32 [Google Scholar]
  138. Clark WC, Kates RW, McGowan AH, Riordan TO. 136.  2005. Science and policy for sustainable development. Environment 47:i [Google Scholar]
  139. Singleton S. 137.  1998. Constructing Cooperation: The Evolution of Institutions of Comanagement Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press [Google Scholar]
  140. Netting RMcC. 138.  1981. Balancing on an Alp: Ecological Change and Continuity in a Swiss Mountain Community New York: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  141. Gibson CC, Williams JT, Ostrom E. 139.  2005. Local enforcement and better forests. World Dev. 33:273–84 [Google Scholar]
  142. Hayes T. 140.  2006. Parks, people, and forest protection: an institutional assessment of the effectiveness of protected areas. World Dev. 34:2064–75 [Google Scholar]
  143. Alcorn JB, Toledo VM. 141.  1998. Resilient resource management in Mexico's forest ecosystems. See Ref. 144 216–49
  144. Moran E. 142.  2006. People and Nature Oxford: Blackwell [Google Scholar]
  145. Anderies JM, Janssen MA, Ostrom E. 143.  2004. A framework to analyze the robustness of social-ecological systems from an institutional perspective. Ecol. Soc. 9:18 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss1/art18/ [Google Scholar]
  146. Berkes F, Folke C. 144.  1998. Linking Social and Ecological Systems Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.environ.020708.100707
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.environ.020708.100707
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error