Annual Review of Environment and Resources - Volume 20,
Volume 20,
- Preface
-
- Review Articles
-
-
-
Weighing Functions for Ozone Depletion and Greenhouse Gas Effects on Climate
Vol. 20 (1995), pp. 45–70More LessWeighing functions are extremely useful tools for evaluating the relative effects of gases affecting global atmospheric ozone and climate. In particular. the concepts of Ozone Depletion Potentials (OOPs) and Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) are extensively used in policy consideration and scientific studies of the ozone and climate issues. OOPs provide a relative measure of the expected cumulative impact on stratospheric ozone from trace gas emissions, and are being used to examine the relative effects on ozone from CFCs, halons and other halocarbons currently being used and to evaluate the potential effects of possible replacement compounds. GWPs provide a means for comparing the relative effects on climate expected from various greenhouse gases. This chapter examines these weighing functions and other indices being used in evaluating concerns about global ozone and climate, discusses the science underlying these indices, and presents the current state-of-the-art for numerical indices and their uncertainties.
-
-
-
Environmental Industries with Substantial Start-Up Costs as Contributors to Trade Competitiveness
Vol. 20 (1995), pp. 71–81More LessThis article describes a second reason beside externalities that can justify government support of new environmental-protection techniques. A new analysis of industries with high start-up costs and scale economies shows that the country in which such an industry is located is not dictated by comparative advantage. Hence, gain of a scale-economies activity need not entail loss of another and can increase income in the acquiring country. High start-up costs also impede entry by a prospective rival country, making it easier for the current producer country to retain it. Private enterprise may not find it attracti ve to undertake such socially-beneficial fields because of the substantial private risks that result from their high start-up costs. So, new environmental-protection techniques with high start-up costs or scale economies can contribute to a nation's prosperity even when unattractive to private enterprise in the absence of government support.
-
-
-
Yucca Mountain: A Crisis for Policy: Prospects for America's High-Level Nuclear Waste Program
James Flynn, and Paul SlovicVol. 20 (1995), pp. 83–118More LessThe federal government's attempts to site a permanent high-level radioactive waste repository have been frustrating and so far unsuccessful. Many of the problems were recognized more than a decade ago. In 1982, the US Congress passed the Nuclear Waste Policy Act and established a program to site and develop an underground repository. By 1987, this program was widely considered to be a failure. It was plagued by public opposition, intergovernmental conflict, poor management, scientific questions and concerns, and substantial cost overruns. In December 1987 Congress amended the act and selected Yucca Mountain, Nevada, as the only location to be studied as a potential repository. This halted further work on other potential sites in the western US, the eastern US sites for a second repository, and the monitored retrievable system facility that the US Department of Energy (DOE) wanted to locate in Tennessee. These amendments did not address the basic causes for the fail ures between 1983 and 1987. As a result, although the program was greatly simplified with only one site, it was beset by the same problems that created the original collapse. Now there are new and widespread calls for a congressional review and restructuring of the program from federal, state, and local officials, government agencies, industry, and public groups. This article examines the lessons from these two failed attempts and makes recommendations for devising a new policy.
-
-
-
Privatization and Reform in the Global Electricity Supply Industry
Vol. 20 (1995), pp. 119–143More LessThis paper reviews the origins of the current global interest in the privatization and reform of the electricity supply industry. Particular emphasis is placed on the issues of restructuring the industry into separate firms and the difficulties of attracting private capital into an industry in which some state ownership remains. The targets to be met, the means of achieving them. and potential difficulties in implementing such changes are analyzed. An overview of actual experience is provided, along with a discussion of the problems of assessing whether these changes have been successful. Finally, some lessons are drawn for the future development of the process.
-
-
-
Internationalizing Nuclear Safety: The Pursuit of Collective Responsibility
Vol. 20 (1995), pp. 179–212More LessThe future of nuclear energy could depend upon the international infrastructure established to ensure the creation of a strong and uniform safety culture. Deliberations during the 1990s, leading to the recently promulgated International Nuclear Safety Convention, held out the prospect of both bolstering nuclear safety and gaining public recognition of the need to address transboundary safety concerns head-on. Unfortunately, the Convention that emerged from the deliberations constitutes little more than another form of technical as::istance. The basis for an alternative, and more substantial, Convention is presented—one that would be based on the establishment and evaluation of perfonnance standards, the creation of a series of political “firebreaks,” and the encouragement of nuclear power plant designs that minimize the catastrophic offsite consequences of accidents.
-
-
-
Asia-Wide Emissions of Greenhouse Gases
Vol. 20 (1995), pp. 213–232More LessEmissions of principal greenhouse gases (GHGs) from Asia are increasing faster than those from any other continent. This is a result of rapid economic growth, as well as the fact that almost half of the world's population lives in Asian countries. In this paper, we provide estimates of emissions of the two principal greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (C02) and methane (CH4), from individual countries and areas. Recent literature has been reviewed for emission estimates for individual sources, such as carbon dioxide from cement manufacture, and methane from rice fields. There are very large uncertainties in many of these estimates, so several estimates are provided, where available.
The largest anthropogenic source of CO2 emissions is the use of fossil fuels. Energy consumption data from 1992 have been used to calculate estimated emissions of CO2 from this source. In view of the ongoing negotiations to limit future greenhouse gas emissions, estimates of projected CO2 emissions from the developing countries of Asia are also provided. These are likely to be 3 times their 1986 levels by 2010, under “business as usual” scenarios. Even with the implementation of energy efficiency measures and fuel switching where feasible, the emissions of CO2 are likely to double within the same time period.
-
-
-
International Environmental Labeling
Vol. 20 (1995), pp. 233–264More LessEnvironmentally acceptable products are continuing to gain importance on the market. This review covers programs that are targeted to mark products or services that are less environmentally harmful than others that serve the same purpose. Several environmental-labeling programs were created in the late 1980s and early 1990s. To illustrate the principles of such labeling systems, various programs are presented in detail. The programs were chosen to represent a wide spectrum o f characteristics: stringent and less demanding, wellestablished and recently created, national and multinational, and from various parts of the world. Similarities and differences, as well as advantages and disadvantages, are discussed.
-
-
-
The Elimination of Lead in Gasoline
Vol. 20 (1995), pp. 301–324More LessDue to the health consequences of lead exposure, as well as to the introduction of catalytic converters, many countries have reduced or eliminated use of lead additives in motor gasolines. But in many other countries, leaded gasoline remains the norm. In these countries there is often confusion about the health significance of gasoline lead, the ability of cars to use unleaded gasoline, and the costs of unleaded gasoline. This chapter shows that leaded gasoline is a major source of human lead exposure. All cars, with or without catalytic converters, and with or without hardened exhaust valve seats, can use unleaded gasoline exclusively. Unleaded gasoline typically costs on the order of $0.01 more per liter than leaded gasoline to produce. Recent concerns about benzene exposure from unleaded gasoline have been addressed through choice of gasoline formulation and other measures.
-
Previous Volumes
-
Volume 49 (2024)
-
Volume 48 (2023)
-
Volume 47 (2022)
-
Volume 46 (2021)
-
Volume 45 (2020)
-
Volume 44 (2019)
-
Volume 43 (2018)
-
Volume 42 (2017)
-
Volume 41 (2016)
-
Volume 40 (2015)
-
Volume 39 (2014)
-
Volume 38 (2013)
-
Volume 37 (2012)
-
Volume 36 (2011)
-
Volume 35 (2010)
-
Volume 34 (2009)
-
Volume 33 (2008)
-
Volume 32 (2007)
-
Volume 31 (2006)
-
Volume 30 (2005)
-
Volume 29 (2004)
-
Volume 28 (2003)
-
Volume 27 (2002)
-
Volume 26 (2001)
-
Volume 25 (2000)
-
Volume 24 (1999)
-
Volume 23 (1998)
-
Volume 22 (1997)
-
Volume 21 (1996)
-
Volume 20 (1995)
-
Volume 19 (1994)
-
Volume 18 (1993)
-
Volume 17 (1992)
-
Volume 16 (1991)
-
Volume 15 (1990)
-
Volume 14 (1989)
-
Volume 13 (1988)
-
Volume 12 (1987)
-
Volume 11 (1986)
-
Volume 10 (1985)
-
Volume 9 (1984)
-
Volume 8 (1983)
-
Volume 7 (1982)
-
Volume 6 (1981)
-
Volume 5 (1980)
-
Volume 4 (1979)
-
Volume 3 (1978)
-
Volume 2 (1977)
-
Volume 1 (1976)
-
Volume 0 (1932)