Annual Review of Environment and Resources - Volume 26, 2001
Volume 26, 2001
- Preface
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- Review Articles
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Queries on the Human Use of the Earth
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 1–26More Less▪ AbstractThe central question of my scientific work has been, what is and ought to be the human use of the earth? It has been pursued collectively, with mentor, colleagues, students, and friends as a set of research questions related to hazards, hunger, and sustainable development. Regarding hazard, I tried to understand why people persist in occupying areas subject to natural and technological hazards and how adaptation made this possible. An extended stay in Africa to research both environment and development led to new queries. Why does hunger persist amid a world of plenty, and what can be done to end it? Can there be a transition to sustainability that over the next two generations would meet human needs and reduce hunger and poverty while maintaining the essential life support systems of the planet? All three themes and the research methods used to pursue them come together in an emerging sustainability science.
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AUTONOMOUS SCIENCE AND SOCIALLY RESPONSIVE SCIENCE: A Search for Resolution
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 29–48More Less▪ AbstractI reflect on a career that has featured developing an advanced torpedo for submarine warfare during World War II, designing alternative nuclear reactors at the advent of nuclear power, guiding the development of the first institutions for technology assessment, assisting several of the early efforts at environmental policy analysis, and promoting experiments that have led to insights regarding the humanization of work. A recurring concern of mine, still unresolved, is how to give due weight, simultaneously, to two different visions of the scientific enterprise: an endeavor that must remain autonomous and an endeavor that must be driven by societal needs.
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INDICATORS OF ENERGY USE AND CARBON EMISSIONS: Explaining the Energy Economy Link
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 49–81More Less▪ AbstractThis article reviews energy indicators, which are developed to describe the links between energy use and human activity in a disaggregated manner. After briefly reviewing a number of early and current efforts to develop indicators, we discuss the basic concepts of various indicators and the methodologies used to derive them. We also review the use of decomposition methods to aid in the analysis of trends in energy use and comparisons of uses between countries. Findings from our comparative and time-series analyses of several industrialized countries illustrate the application of these methods. Using simplified methods for estimating the carbon released in direct combustion of fossil fuels, and in electricity and heat production, energy indicators can be extended to carbon emissions. These carbon indicators can play an important role in aiding negotiations over carbon reduction targets and evaluating progress toward meeting abatement goals.
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ENERGY CONSERVATION IN CHINESE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS: Progress and Opportunities in Design and Policy
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 83–115More Less▪ AbstractEnergy conservation in Chinese residential buildings merits attention in part due to China's large population, increased standard of living, and high volume of construction. This paper focuses on three major themes: issues exerting an upward pressure on residential energy use, policy for promoting energy conservation, and technical opportunities to decrease energy use and increase comfort. An increase in total floor area, increasing electric appliance ownership, and an increase in demand for heating and cooling characterize the residential sector. Space heating remains the dominant energy end-use. Relatively new buildings in cold regions of China, while a marked improvement over earlier construction, still suffer from inadequate insulation, leaky windows, and lack of attention to construction quality. Energy-conservation standards have addressed these issues in part, but further effort is needed to ensure code compliance. A survey of prospective homeowners shows that energy-efficient housing would best be promoted by marketing the combined benefits of natural lighting and ventilation, better quality, and savings in heating and air-conditioning energy costs, rather than only promoting a dwelling as “environmentally friendly” or offering reduced heating bills. Reviewed technologies concentrate on reductions in heating and cooling energy through improved site layout, building design, building envelope materials, ventilation, and alternative cooling equipment.
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POLICY MODELING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT IN US INDUSTRY1
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 117–143More Less▪ AbstractWe are just beginning to evaluate and model the contributions policies make toward improving energy efficiency. In this article, three recent studies are reviewed. They represent an important step in the analyses of climate-change mitigation strategies. All studies model estimated policy impacts rather than the policies themselves. Often the policy impacts are based on assumptions, as the effects of a policy are not certain. Most models incorporate only economic (or price) tools, which, for estimating impacts, costs, and benefits of mitigation strategies, recent studies have proven are insufficient. The studies reviewed are a first effort to capture the effects of nonprice policies. They contribute to a better understanding of the role of policies in improving energy efficiency and mitigating climate change. All policy scenarios result in substantial energy savings compared with the baseline scenario used; they also result in substantial net benefits to the US economy. Because the industrial sector is the most diverse and, arguably, the most challenging energy-demand sector to model, studying policies for them is no easy task. The challenges, which are many, fall into two categories: appropriate level of detail (i.e., sector, technology, and policy) and representations of decision making. A better understanding of decision-making behavior, technology choice, and policy impact and effectiveness is needed to improve our understanding of the potential effectiveness of future energy efficiency policies as well as to improve policy modeling. With these developments, the current and next-generation policy models and studies have the potential to become richer representations of the industrial sector.
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STORAGE OF FOSSIL FUEL-DERIVED CARBON DIOXIDE BENEATH THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 145–166More Less▪ AbstractUnderground storage in porous and permeable reservoir rocks is a technically feasible way to dispose of industrial quantities of carbon dioxide such as are produced by a fossil fuel–fired power plant. All the necessary steps are commercially proven and in use today. Extensive, naturally occurring CO2 accumulations indicate that under favorable conditions CO2 can be retained in underground reservoirs for millions of years. Large-scale commercial underground CO2 sequestration has begun at the Sleipner West gas field in the North Sea. Some of the major issues to be addressed if this technology is to make an impact on CO2 emissions to the atmosphere are cost of CO2 capture, safety and security of storage, and public acceptability.
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HISTORICAL AND FUTURE TRENDS IN AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE, COST, AND EMISSIONS
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 167–200More Less▪ AbstractThe interdependency of aircraft technological systems, the global reach of the aviation transport industry, and the uncertainty surrounding potential atmospheric effects have made defining the relationship between aviation and environmental impact an arduous task. Air travel continues to experience the fastest growth of all modes of transport, and although the energy intensity of the aviation transport system continues to decline, fuel use and total emissions have steadily risen. This trend, which represents a conflict between growth and environmental impact, has motivated the aircraft manufacturing and airline industries, the scientific community, and governmental bodies to consider what pace of emissions reduction is acceptable. This paper analyzes the historical influence of aircraft performance on cost to examine the potential pace of future efficiency improvements and emissions reduction. Technological and operational influences on aircraft energy intensity are quantified and correlated with direct operating cost and aircraft price using analytical and statistical models built upon historical data for US airlines. The energy intensity reduction potential and economic characteristics of future aircraft are also projected, through extrapolations of historical trends in aircraft technology and operations.
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INTERIM STORAGE OF SPENT FUEL IN THE UNITED STATES
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 201–235More Less▪ AbstractAt nuclear power reactors around the United States, quantities of spent or irradiated nuclear fuel are growing while owner-operator companies await the approval of a permanent storage facility. Some reactors have run out of space in their cooling pools and have had to resort to dry cask storage. The first half of this paper looks at the policy history of interim storage in the United States, discusses the current storage status at individual reactors, and then reviews the technologies available to deal with it. The second half of the paper considers the different options for dealing with this hazardous material in the interim, before a permanent high-level nuclear waste repository is opened, and examines the safety, security, transportation, economic, political, and other issues that bear on the choice of option.
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PROTECTING AGRICULTURAL CROPS FROM THE EFFECTS OF TROPOSPHERIC OZONE EXPOSURE: Reconciling Science and Standard Setting in the United States, Europe, and Asia
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 237–268More Less▪ AbstractOzone (O3) is well documented as the air pollutant most damaging to agricultural crops and other plants. Most crops in developed countries are grown in summer when O3 concentrations are elevated and frequently are sufficiently high to reduce yields. This article examines the difficulties in scientifically determining the reduction in yield that results from the exposure of agricultural crops to surface O3 and then transforming that knowledge into efficient and effective regulatory standards. The different approaches taken by the United States and Europe in addressing this issue as well as the few studies that have been conducted to date in developing countries are examined and summarized. Extensive research was conducted in the United States during the 1980s but has not been continued. During the 1990s, the European community forged ahead with scientific research and innovative proposals for air-quality standards. These efforts included the development of a “critical level” (CL) for O3 based on a cumulative exposure above a cutoff concentration below which only an acceptable level of harm is incurred. Current research focuses on estimating O3 dosage to plants and incorporating this metric into regulatory standards. The US regulatory community can learn from current European scientific research and regulatory strategies, which argue strongly for a separate secondary standard for O3 to protect vegetation. Increasing impacts of O3 on crops are likely in developing countries as they continue to industrialize and their emissions of air pollutants increase. More research is needed on surface O3 concentrations in developing countries, on their projected increase, and on the sensitivity that crop cultivars used in developing countries have to O3. The threat of reduced agricultural yields due to increasing O3 concentrations may encourage developing countries to increase their energy efficiency and to use different energy sources. This could simultaneously achieve a local benefit through improved regional air quality and a global benefit through a reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases.
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HUMAN EXPOSURE TO VOLATILE ORGANIC POLLUTANTS: Implications for Indoor Air Studies1
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 269–301More Less▪ AbstractOver the past 20 years, a new scientific discipline based on direct measurement of human exposure to environmental pollutants has developed. The fundamental principle of the new science is to “measure where the people are.” This has required developing small, lightweight, quiet personal monitors for volatile organic compounds and other pollutants. A second principle has been to measure body burden, particularly exhaled breath, whenever possible to determine the relationship between exposure and dose. Studies employing the new monitors and breath measurements have overturned accepted ideas about the sources of most volatile organic pollutants. The main sources turn out surprisingly often to be small, close to the person, and completely unregulated. These findings should result in major changes in our approach to environmental regulation; however, powerful forces of resistance would need to be overcome.
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CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS FROM THE GLOBAL CEMENT INDUSTRY1
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 303–329More Less▪ AbstractThe cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions, making the cement industry an important sector for CO2-emission mitigation strategies. CO2 is emitted from the calcination process of limestone, from combustion of fuels in the kiln, as well as from power generation. In this paper, we review the total CO2 emissions from cement making, including process and energy-related emissions. Currently, most available data only includes the process emissions. We also discuss CO2 emission mitigation options for the cement industry. Estimated total carbon emissions from cement production in 1994 were 307 million metric tons of carbon (MtC), 160 MtC from process carbon emissions, and 147 MtC from energy use. Overall, the top 10 cement-producing countries in 1994 accounted for 63% of global carbon emissions from cement production. The average intensity of carbon dioxide emissions from total global cement production is 222 kg of C/t of cement. Emission mitigation options include energy efficiency improvement, new processes, a shift to low carbon fuels, application of waste fuels, increased use of additives in cement making, and, eventually, alternative cements and CO2 removal from flue gases in clinker kilns.
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GLOBAL ELECTRIC POWER REFORM, PRIVATIZATION, AND LIBERALIZATION OF THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES1
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 331–359More Less▪ AbstractThis paper reviews the progress of the movement to privatize and liberalize the power sector in developing countries. It reviews the forces driving the movement and then describes the steps that should be taken to achieve success. Data on actual steps taken and preliminary information on the impact of reform are presented. Finally, lessons from this past experience are highlighted.
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FEDERAL FOSSIL FUEL SUBSIDIES AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS: A Case Study of Increasing Transparency for Fiscal Policy
Doug Koplow, and John DernbachVol. 26 (2001), pp. 361–389More Less▪ AbstractGrowing international pressure to curb greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has focused attention on existing policies that may, either by design or by effect, subsidize fossil fuel production and consumption. This paper reviews existing studies of fossil fuel subsidies within the United States, as well as assessments of the potential impact of subsidy reform on GHG emissions. Evaluating the differences across the studies, it highlights the most important disparities in subsidy definition and valuation in order to clarify the conclusions that can be drawn from this body of work. We then present some of the tools used to provide transparency in environmental regulation. We conclude that many of these approaches can be used to improve the transparency of fiscal policy, with important benefits within the context of climate change and beyond.
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THE PCAST ENERGY STUDIES: Toward a National Consensus on Energy Research, Development, Demonstration, and Deployment Policy
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 391–434More Less▪ AbstractDuring the period 1995–1999, the President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) produced three major energy studies, at President Clinton's request. The panels that conducted these studies were broadly constituted from the academic, industrial, and NGO (nongovernmental organization) sectors, and their recommendations were unanimous. These efforts (a) helped lay the foundation for several major energy initiatives of the second Clinton term, including the Climate Change Technology Initiative, the Nuclear Energy Research Initiative, and the International Clean Energy Initiative; (b) helped launch energy R&D activities on methane hydrates and geological sequestration of carbon dioxide; and (c) strengthened related activities, such as the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles, the Partnership for Advancing Technologies in Housing, the fossil power Vision-21 Program, and the National Bioenergy Initiative. Federal budgets for research, development, demonstration, and deployment of advanced energy technologies have increased substantially over the past four years, but they still fall short of PCAST's recommendations; and a number of the PCAST recommendations on matters other than budget have yet to be fully implemented. The PCAST energy studies demonstrate the possibility of forging consensus around key energy issues and provide a foundation on which, it is hoped, the continuing pursuit of a coherent national policy on energy innovation will be able to build.
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CARBON SINKS IN TEMPERATE FORESTS1
Vol. 26 (2001), pp. 435–465More Less▪ AbstractIn addition to being scientifically exciting, commercially important, and environmentally essential, temperate forests have also become a key diplomatic item in international climate negotiations as potential sinks for carbon. This review presents the methods used to estimate carbon sequestration, identifies the constraints and opportunities for carbon sequestration in temperate forests, addresses the issues raised by the monitoring of carbon sequestration, and analyzes uncertainties pertaining to the sequestration of carbon by temperate forests. This review serves a dual purpose: It aims at informing policy makers about carbon sequestration in temperate forests and at making forest ecologists, biogeochemists, and atmospheric scientists aware of the structure of an international agreement to reduce CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions and some of the real, still answered scientific questions that it poses.
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Previous Volumes
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Volume 49 (2024)
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Volume 48 (2023)
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Volume 47 (2022)
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Volume 46 (2021)
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Volume 45 (2020)
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Volume 44 (2019)
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Volume 43 (2018)
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Volume 42 (2017)
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Volume 41 (2016)
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Volume 40 (2015)
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Volume 39 (2014)
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Volume 38 (2013)
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Volume 37 (2012)
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Volume 36 (2011)
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Volume 35 (2010)
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Volume 34 (2009)
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Volume 33 (2008)
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Volume 32 (2007)
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Volume 31 (2006)
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Volume 30 (2005)
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Volume 29 (2004)
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Volume 28 (2003)
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Volume 27 (2002)
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Volume 26 (2001)
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Volume 25 (2000)
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Volume 24 (1999)
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Volume 23 (1998)
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Volume 22 (1997)
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Volume 21 (1996)
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Volume 20 (1995)
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Volume 19 (1994)
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Volume 18 (1993)
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Volume 17 (1992)
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Volume 16 (1991)
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Volume 15 (1990)
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Volume 14 (1989)
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Volume 13 (1988)
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Volume 12 (1987)
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Volume 11 (1986)
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Volume 10 (1985)
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Volume 9 (1984)
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Volume 8 (1983)
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Volume 7 (1982)
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Volume 6 (1981)
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Volume 5 (1980)
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Volume 4 (1979)
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Volume 3 (1978)
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Volume 2 (1977)
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Volume 1 (1976)
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Volume 0 (1932)