1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology
  4. Volume 3, 2021
  5. Article

Annual Review of Developmental Psychology

Volume 3, 2021

Asthma as a Developmental Disorder

Abstract

Asthma is the most common disorder in childhood, affecting six million children in the United States. Asthma is a heterogeneous disease, but most cases either start in early life or have their roots in events occurring in utero or during the preschool years. Protective or harmful exposures, including to environmental microbes, occurring during critical developmental windows determine patterns of immune responses that often persist for a lifetime. Air pollution, tobacco smoke, and prematurity can cause congenital airway narrowing, and newborns with decreased airway function are at risk for having asthma symptoms up to adulthood. Effects of environmental exposures are modified by common genetic variations and may also be mediated by prenatal changes in the epigenetic structure of the genome. Based on this evidence, we have postulated that asthma should be considered a developmental disorder, and this concept may be applicable to other chronic medical conditions affecting both children and adults.

Keyword(s): asthma, child, epigenetics, genetics, gene–environment interactions, incidence, risk factors
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-030221-020950
2021-12-09
2024-05-12
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/devpsych/3/1/annurev-devpsych-030221-020950.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-030221-020950&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Allen M, Heinzmann A, Noguchi E, Abecasis G, Broxholme J et al. 2003. Positional cloning of a novel gene influencing asthma from chromosome 2q14. Nat. Genet. 35:258–63
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Amemiya A, Fujiwara T. 2019. Association of low family income with lung function among children and adolescents: results of the J-SHINE study. J. Epidemiol. 29:50–56
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Andabaka T, Nickerson JW, Rojas-Reyes MX, Rueda JD, Bacic Vrca V, Barsic B 2013. Monoclonal antibody for reducing the risk of respiratory syncytial virus infection in children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2013:4CD006602
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Arrieta MC, Stiemsma LT, Dimitriu PA, Thorson L, Russell S et al. 2015. Early infancy microbial and metabolic alterations affect risk of childhood asthma. Sci. Transl. Med. 7:307ra152
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Ball TM, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Griffith KA, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Wright AL. 2000. Siblings, day-care attendance, and the risk of asthma and wheezing during childhood. N. Engl. J. Med. 343:538–43
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Bisgaard H, Hermansen MN, Buchvald F, Loland L, Halkjaer LB et al. 2007. Childhood asthma after bacterial colonization of the airway in neonates. N. Engl. J. Med. 357:1487–95
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Bisgaard H, Jensen SM, Bonnelykke K. 2012. Interaction between asthma and lung function growth in early life. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 185:1183–89
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bose S, Chiu YM, Hsu HL, Di Q, Rosa MJ et al. 2017. Prenatal nitrate exposure and childhood asthma. Influence of maternal prenatal stress and fetal sex. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 196:1396–403
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Bouzigon E, Corda E, Aschard H, Dizier MH, Boland A et al. 2008. Effect of 17q21 variants and smoking exposure in early-onset asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 359:1985–94
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Boyce WT, Levitt P, Martinez FD, McEwen BS, Shonkoff JP. 2021. Genes, environments, and time: the biology of adversity and resilience. Pediatrics 147:e20201651
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Brunwasser SM, Snyder BM, Driscoll AJ, Fell DB, Savitz DA et al. 2020. Assessing the strength of evidence for a causal effect of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infections on subsequent wheezing illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Respir. Med. 8:795–806
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Burrows B, Martinez FD, Cline MG, Lebowitz MD. 1995. The relationship between parental and children's serum IgE and asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152:1497–500
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Caliskan M, Bochkov YA, Kreiner-Moller E, Bonnelykke K, Stein MM et al. 2013. Rhinovirus wheezing illness and genetic risk of childhood-onset asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 368:1398–407
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Carr TF, Beamer PI, Rothers J, Stern DA, Gerald LB et al. 2017. Prevalence of asthma in school children on the Arizona-Sonora border. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract. 5:114–20.e2
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Celedon JC, Litonjua AA, Ryan L, Weiss ST, Gold DR 2002. Bottle feeding in the bed or crib before sleep time and wheezing in early childhood. Pediatrics 110:e77
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Crestani E, Guerra S, Wright AL, Halonen M, Martinez FD. 2004. Parental asthma as a risk factor for the development of early skin test sensitization in children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 113:284–90
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Dawson B, Illsley R, Horobin G, Mitchell R 1969. A survey of childhood asthma in Aberdeen. Lancet 1:827–30
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Depner M, Taft DH, Kirjavainen PV, Kalanetra KM, Karvonen AM et al. 2020. Maturation of the gut microbiome during the first year of life contributes to the protective farm effect on childhood asthma. Nat. Med. 26:1766–75
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Du Toit G, Roberts G, Sayre PH, Bahnson HT, Radulovic S et al. 2015. Randomized trial of peanut consumption in infants at risk for peanut allergy. N. Engl. J. Med. 372:803–13
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Durack J, Lynch SV. 2019. The gut microbiome: relationships with disease and opportunities for therapy. J. Exp. Med. 216:20–40
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Eder W, Ege MJ, von Mutius E 2006. The asthma epidemic. N. Engl. J. Med. 355:2226–35
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Edwards MR, Strong K, Cameron A, Walton RP, Jackson DJ, Johnston SL 2017. Viral infections in allergy and immunology: how allergic inflammation influences viral infections and illness. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 140:909–20
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Ege MJ, Mayer M, Normand AC, Genuneit J, Cookson WO et al. 2011. Exposure to environmental microorganisms and childhood asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 364:701–9
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Eldeirawi K, McConnell R, Furner S, Freels S, Stayner L et al. 2009. Associations of doctor-diagnosed asthma with immigration status, age at immigration, and length of residence in the United States in a sample of Mexican American school children in Chicago. J. Asthma 46:796–802
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Fall T, Ekberg S, Lundholm C, Fang F, Almqvist C. 2018. Dog characteristics and future risk of asthma in children growing up with dogs. Sci. Rep. 8:16899
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Fuchs O, Genuneit J, Latzin P, Buchele G, Horak E et al. 2012. Farming environments and childhood atopy, wheeze, lung function, and exhaled nitric oxide. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 130:382–88.e6
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Fujimura KE, Demoor T, Rauch M, Faruqi AA, Jang S et al. 2014. House dust exposure mediates gut microbiome Lactobacillus enrichment and airway immune defense against allergens and virus infection. PNAS 111:805–10
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Fujimura KE, Sitarik AR, Havstad S, Lin DL, Levan S et al. 2016. Neonatal gut microbiota associates with childhood multisensitized atopy and T cell differentiation. Nat. Med. 22:1187–91
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Gabay C, Lamacchia C, Palmer G. 2010. IL-1 pathways in inflammation and human diseases. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 6:232–41
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Garcia E, Berhane KT, Islam T, McConnell R, Urman R et al. 2019. Association of changes in air quality with incident asthma in children in California, 1993–2014. JAMA 321:1906–15
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Gauderman WJ, Avol E, Gilliland F, Vora H, Thomas D et al. 2004. The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age. N. Engl. J. Med. 351:1057–67
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Gehring U, de Jongste JC, Kerkhof M, Oldewening M, Postma D et al. 2012. The 8-year follow-up of the PIAMA intervention study assessing the effect of mite-impermeable mattress covers. Allergy 67:248–56
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Gergen PJ, Mitchell HE, Calatroni A, Sever ML, Cohn RD et al. 2018. Sensitization and exposure to pets: the effect on asthma morbidity in the US population. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract. 6:101–7.e2
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Gern JE, Martin MS, Anklam KA, Shen K, Roberg KA et al. 2002. Relationships among specific viral pathogens, virus-induced interleukin-8, and respiratory symptoms in infancy. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 13:386–93
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Gern JE, Visness CM, Gergen PJ, Wood RA, Bloomberg GR et al. 2009. The Urban Environment and Childhood Asthma (URECA) birth cohort study: design, methods, and study population. BMC Pulm. Med. 9:17
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Gohlke H, Illig T, Bahnweg M, Klopp N, Andre E et al. 2004. Association of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene with asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 169:1217–23
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Gref A, Merid SK, Gruzieva O, Ballereau S, Becker A et al. 2017. Genome-wide interaction analysis of air pollution exposure and childhood asthma with functional follow-up. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 195:1373–83
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Guerra S, Lombardi E, Stern DA, Sherrill DL, Gilbertson-Dahdal D et al. 2020. Fetal origins of asthma: a longitudinal study from birth to age 36 years. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 202:1646–55
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Hallmark B, Wegienka G, Havstad S, Billheimer D, Ownby D et al. 2021. Chromosome 17q12–21 variants are associated with multiple wheezing phenotypes in childhood. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 203:864–70
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Halonen M, Stern DA, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Martinez FD. 1997. Alternaria as a major allergen for asthma in children raised in a desert environment. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155:1356–61
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Heederik D, von Mutius E 2012. Does diversity of environmental microbial exposure matter for the occurrence of allergy and asthma?. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 130:44–50
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Hehua Z, Qing C, Shanyan G, Qijun W, Yuhong Z 2017. The impact of prenatal exposure to air pollution on childhood wheezing and asthma: a systematic review. Environ. Res. 159:519–30
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Heinrich J, Thiering E 2018. Ambient air pollution: How much of estimated “prenatal exposure” is truly attributable to pre-birth exposures?. Environ. Res. 165:442–43
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Jackson DJ, Gangnon RE, Evans MD, Roberg KA, Anderson EL et al. 2008. Wheezing rhinovirus illnesses in early life predict asthma development in high-risk children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 178:667–72
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Jackson DJ, Sykes A, Mallia P, Johnston SL. 2011. Asthma exacerbations: origin, effect, and prevention. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 128:1165–74
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Jin Y, Xu Y, Xue S, Liu H, Zhao J, Xu M. 2007. Predicting the development of early skin test sensitization in offspring of parents with asthma. Eur. J. Clin. Investig. 37:522–27
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Keet CA, McCormack MC, Pollack CE, Peng RD, McGowan E, Matsui EC. 2015. Neighborhood poverty, urban residence, race/ethnicity, and asthma: rethinking the inner-city asthma epidemic. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 135:655–62
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Kenyon CC, Hill DA, Henrickson SE, Bryant-Stephens TC, Zorc JJ. 2020. Initial effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on pediatric asthma emergency department utilization. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract. 8:2774–76.e1
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Khreis H, Kelly C, Tate J, Parslow R, Lucas K, Nieuwenhuijsen M 2017. Exposure to traffic-related air pollution and risk of development of childhood asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ. Int. 100:1–31
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Korten I, Ramsey K, Latzin P 2017. Air pollution during pregnancy and lung development in the child. Paediatr. Respir. Rev. 21:38–46
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Kraepelien S. 1954. The frequency of bronchial asthma in Swedish school children. Acta Paediatr 43:S100149–53
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Kreiner-Moller E, Strachan DP, Linneberg A, Husemoen LL, Bisgaard H, Bonnelykke K. 2015. 17q21 gene variation is not associated with asthma in adulthood. Allergy 70:107–14
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Lee AG, Kaali S, Quinn A, Delimini R, Burkart K et al. 2019. Prenatal household air pollution is associated with impaired infant lung function with sex-specific effects. Evidence from GRAPHS, a cluster randomized cookstove intervention trial. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 199:738–46
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Levan SR, Stamnes KA, Lin DL, Panzer AR, Fukui E et al. 2019. Elevated faecal 12,13-diHOME concentration in neonates at high risk for asthma is produced by gut bacteria and impedes immune tolerance. Nat. Microbiol. 4:1851–61
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Lodge CJ, Lowe AJ, Gurrin LC, Hill DJ, Hosking CS et al. 2011. House dust mite sensitization in toddlers predicts current wheeze at age 12 years. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 128:782–88.e9
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Lødrup Carlsen KC, Roll S, Carlsen KH, Mowinckel P, Wijga AH et al. 2012. Does pet ownership in infancy lead to asthma or allergy at school age? Pooled analysis of individual participant data from 11 European birth cohorts. PLOS ONE 7:e43214
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Loss GJ, Depner M, Hose AJ, Genuneit J, Karvonen AM et al. 2016. The early development of wheeze. Environmental determinants and genetic susceptibility at 17q21. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 193:889–97
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Lynch SV, Vercelli D. 2021. Microbiota, epigenetics and trained immunity: convergent drivers and mediators of the asthma trajectory from pregnancy to childhood. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 203:802–8
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Lynch SV, Wood RA, Boushey H, Bacharier LB, Bloomberg GR et al. 2014. Effects of early-life exposure to allergens and bacteria on recurrent wheeze and atopy in urban children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 134:593–601.e12
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Maier RM, Palmer MW, Andersen GL, Halonen MJ, Josephson KC et al. 2010. Environmental determinants of and impact on childhood asthma by the bacterial community in household dust. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 76:2663–67
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Martinez DF. 2001. The coming-of-age of the hygiene hypothesis. Respir. Res. 2:129–32
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Martinez DF. 2003. Toward asthma prevention—does all that really matters happen before we learn to read?. N. Engl. J. Med. 349:1473–75
     [Google Scholar]
  63. McGeachie MJ, Yates KP, Zhou X, Guo F, Sternberg AL et al. 2016. Patterns of growth and decline in lung function in persistent childhood asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 374:1842–52
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Mitchell EA, Anderson HR 1990. Changes in asthma prevalence. Arch. Dis. Child. 65:646
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Mitchell-Olds T, Willis JH, Goldstein DB 2007. Which evolutionary processes influence natural genetic variation for phenotypic traits?. Nat. Rev. Genet. 8:845–56
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Morgan WJ. 1998. Maternal smoking and infant lung function. Further evidence for an in utero effect. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158:689–90
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Morgan WJ, Stern DA, Sherrill DL, Guerra S, Holberg CJ et al. 2005. Outcome of asthma and wheezing in the first 6 years of life: follow-up through adolescence. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172:1253–58
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Murray CS, Foden P, Sumner H, Shepley E, Custovic A, Simpson A 2017. Preventing severe asthma exacerbations in children. A randomized trial of mite-impermeable bedcovers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 196:150–58
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Netea MG, Dominguez-Andres J, Barreiro LB, Chavakis T, Divangahi M et al. 2020. Defining trained immunity and its role in health and disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 20:375–88
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Ober C, McKennan CG, Magnaye KM, Altman MC, Washington C 3rd et al. 2020. Expression quantitative trait locus fine mapping of the 17q12–21 asthma locus in African American children: a genetic association and gene expression study. Lancet Respir. Med. 8:482–92
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Ober C, Yao TC. 2011. The genetics of asthma and allergic disease: a 21st century perspective. Immunol. Rev. 242:10–30
     [Google Scholar]
  72. O'Connor GT, Lynch SV, Bloomberg GR, Kattan M, Wood RA et al. 2018. Early-life home environment and risk of asthma among inner-city children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 141:1468–75
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Olszak T, An D, Zeissig S, Vera MP, Richter J et al. 2012. Microbial exposure during early life has persistent effects on natural killer T cell function. Science 336:489–93
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Ownby RD. 2010. Pet dander and difficult-to-control asthma: the burden of illness. Allergy Asthma Proc 31:381–84
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Pattaro C, Heinrich J, Werner M, de Marco, R, Wjst M. 2006. Association between interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene and asthma-related traits in a German adult population. Allergy 61:239–44
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Ramadas RA, Sadeghnejad A, Karmaus W, Arshad SH, Matthews S et al. 2007. Interleukin-1R antagonist gene and pre-natal smoke exposure are associated with childhood asthma. Eur. Respir. J. 29:502–8
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Remes ST, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Wright AL. 2001. Dog exposure in infancy decreases the subsequent risk of frequent wheeze but not of atopy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 108:509–15
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Rona RJ, Gulliford MC, Chinn S. 1993. Effects of prematurity and intrauterine growth on respiratory health and lung function in childhood. BMJ 306:817–20
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Rubner FJ, Jackson DJ, Evans MD, Gangnon RE, Tisler CJ et al. 2017. Early life rhinovirus wheezing, allergic sensitization, and asthma risk at adolescence. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 139:501–7
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Saglani S, Payne DN, Zhu J, Wang Z, Nicholson AG et al. 2007. Early detection of airway wall remodeling and eosinophilic inflammation in preschool wheezers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 176:858–64
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Schneider-Schaulies J, Schneider-Schaulies S. 2015. Sphingolipids in viral infection. Biol. Chem. 396:585–95
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Sears MR, Greene JM, Willan AR, Wiecek EM, Taylor DR et al. 2003. A longitudinal, population-based, cohort study of childhood asthma followed to adulthood. N. Engl. J. Med. 349:1414–22
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Shao Y, Zhang Y, Liu M, Fernandez-Beros ME, Qian M, Reibman J 2020. Gene-environment interaction between the IL1RN variants and childhood environmental tobacco smoke exposure in asthma risk. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17:2036
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Sitarik AR, Havstad S, Levin AM, Lynch SV, Fujimura KE et al. 2018. Dog introduction alters the home dust microbiota. Indoor Air 28:539–47
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Stein MM, Hrusch CL, Gozdz J, Igartua C, Pivniouk V et al. 2016. Innate immunity and asthma risk in Amish and Hutterite farm children. N. Engl. J. Med. 375:411–21
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Stern DA, Morgan WJ, Halonen M, Wright AL, Martinez FD 2008. Wheezing and bronchial hyper-responsiveness in early childhood as predictors of newly diagnosed asthma in early adulthood: a longitudinal birth-cohort study. Lancet 372:1058–64
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Stern DA, Morgan WJ, Wright AL, Guerra S, Martinez FD. 2007. Poor airway function in early infancy and lung function by age 22 years: a non-selective longitudinal cohort study. Lancet 370:758–64
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Strachan DP. 1989. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ 299:1259–60
     [Google Scholar]
  89. Strachan DP, Butland BK, Anderson HR. 1996. Incidence and prognosis of asthma and wheezing illness from early childhood to age 33 in a national British cohort. BMJ 312:1195–99
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Strunk RC, Weiss ST, Yates KP, Tonascia J, Zeiger RS, Szefler SJ. 2006. Mild to moderate asthma affects lung growth in children and adolescents. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 118:1040–47
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Taussig LM, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ, Martinez FD 2003. Tucson Children's Respiratory Study: 1980 to present. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 111:661–75
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Teo SM, Mok D, Pham K, Kusel M, Serralha M et al. 2015. The infant nasopharyngeal microbiome impacts severity of lower respiratory infection and risk of asthma development. Cell Host Microbe 17:704–15
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Thomsen SF, van der Sluis S, Kyvik KO, Skytthe A, Backer V 2010. Estimates of asthma heritability in a large twin sample. Clin. Exp. Allergy 40:1054–61
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Thorburn AN, McKenzie CI, Shen S, Stanley D, Macia L et al. 2015. Evidence that asthma is a developmental origin disease influenced by maternal diet and bacterial metabolites. Nat. Commun. 6:7320
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Thurston GD, Balmes JR, Garcia E, Gilliland FD, Rice MB et al. 2020. Outdoor air pollution and new-onset airway disease. An official American Thoracic Society Workshop report. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc 17:387–98
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Toelle BG, Garden FL, Ng KKW, Belousova EG, Almqvist C et al. 2013. Outcomes of the childhood asthma prevention study at 11.5 years. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 132:1220–22.e3
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Turner S, Mackay D, Dick S, Semple S, Pell JP 2020. Associations between a smoke-free homes intervention and childhood admissions to hospital in Scotland: an interrupted time-series analysis of whole-population data. Lancet Public Health 5:e493–500
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Wills-Karp M. 2020. At last—linking ORMDL3 polymorphisms, decreased sphingolipid synthesis, and asthma susceptibility. J. Clin. Investig. 130:604–7
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Wright JR. 2010. Perinatal stress and early life programming of lung structure and function. Biol. Psychol. 84:46–56
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Zahran HS, Bailey CM, Damon SA, Garbe PL, Breysse PN. 2018. Vital signs: asthma in children—United States 2001–2016. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 67:149–55
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Zhang Y, Willis-Owen SAG, Spiegel S, Lloyd CM, Moffatt MF, Cookson WOCM. 2019. The ORMDL3 asthma gene regulates ICAM1 and has multiple effects on cellular inflammation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 199:478–88
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-030221-020950
Loading
Asthma as a Developmental Disorder
Annual Review of Developmental Psychology 3, 229 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-030221-020950
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-030221-020950
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-030221-020950
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error