1932

Abstract

Adolescents spend much of their daily lives online, and fears abound that digital technology use, and social media in particular, is harming their social and emotional development. Findings to date do not support causal or robust associations between social media use and adolescents’ development. Instead, prior studies have produced a mix of small positive, negative, and often null associations. The narrative around social media and adolescent development has been negative, but empirical support for the story of increasing deficits, disease, and disconnection is limited. This article reviews what is known about the association between social media use and adolescent social and emotional well-being, identifies key limitations in current research, and recommends ways to improve science while also minimizing risk and creating opportunities for positive development in an increasingly digital and uncertain age.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084815
2020-12-15
2024-10-04
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/devpsych/2/1/annurev-devpsych-121318-084815.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084815&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Baker DA, Algorta GP. 2016. The relationship between online social networking and depression: a systematic review of quantitative studies. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 19:11638–48 https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0206
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  2. Best P, Manktelow R, Taylor B 2014. Online communication, social media and adolescent wellbeing: a systematic narrative review. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 41:27–36 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.001
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bevan Jones R, Stallard P, Agha SS, Rice S, Werner‐Seidler A et al. 2020. Practitioner review: co‐design of digital mental health technologies with children and young people. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 61:8928–40 https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13258
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  4. Beyens I, Pouwels JL, van Driel II, Keijsers L, Valkenburg PM 2020. The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent. Sci. Rep. 10:110763 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67727-7
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bry LJ, Chou T, Miguel E, Comer JS 2018. Consumer smartphone apps marketed for child and adolescent anxiety: a systematic review and content analysis. Behav. Ther. 49:2249–61 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.07.008
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  6. Ceglarek PJ, Ward LM. 2016. A tool for help or harm? How associations between social networking use, social support, and mental health differ for sexual minority and heterosexual youth. Comput. Hum. Behav. 65:201–9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.051
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chivers T. 2019. Does psychology have a conflict-of-interest problem. ? Nature 571:776320–24
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Ellis DA. 2019. Are smartphones really that bad? Improving the psychological measurement of technology-related behaviors. Comput. Hum. Behav. 97:60–66 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.006
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  9. Firth J, Torous J, Nicholas J, Carney R, Pratap A et al. 2017a. The efficacy of smartphone‐based mental health interventions for depressive symptoms: a meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials. World Psychiatry 16:3287–98 https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20472
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  10. Firth J, Torous J, Nicholas J, Carney R, Rosenbaum S, Sarris J 2017b. Can smartphone mental health interventions reduce symptoms of anxiety? A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Affect. Disord. 218:15–22 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.04.046
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  11. Funder DC, Ozer DJ. 2019. Evaluating effect size in psychological research: sense and nonsense. Adv. Methods Pract. Psychol. Sci. 2:2156–68 https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245919847202
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  12. George MJ, Jensen MR, Russell MA, Gassman-Pines A, Copeland WE et al. 2020. Young adolescents' digital technology use, perceived impairments, and well-being in a representative sample. J. Pediatr. 219:180–87 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2019.12.002
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  13. George MJ, Odgers CL. 2015. Seven fears and the science of how mobile technologies may be influencing adolescents in the digital age. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10:6832–51 https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615596788
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  14. Grist R, Cliffe B, Denne M, Croker A, Stallard P 2018. An online survey of young adolescent girls' use of the internet and smartphone apps for mental health support. BJPsych Open 4:4302–6 https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2018.43
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  15. Haidt J, Allen N. 2020. Scrutinizing the effects of digital technology on mental health. Nature 578:226–27 https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-00296-x
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  16. Hanckel B, Vivienne S, Byron P, Robards B, Churchill B 2019. ‘That's not necessarily for them’: LGBTIQ+ young people, social media platform affordances and identity curation. Media Cult. Soc. 41:81261–78 https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443719846612
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  17. Heffer T, Good M, Daly O, MacDonell E, Willoughby T 2019. The longitudinal association between social-media use and depressive symptoms among adolescents and young adults: an empirical reply to Twenge et al. (2018). Clin. Psychol. Sci. 7:3462–70 https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618812727
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hollis C, Falconer CJ, Martin JL, Whittington C, Stockton S et al. 2017. Annual research review: digital health interventions for children and young people with mental health problems—a systematic and meta‐review. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 58:4474–503 https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12663
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  19. Huang C. 2017. Time spent on social network sites and psychological well-being: a meta-analysis. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 20:6346–54 https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0758
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  20. Ito M, Baumer S, Bittani M, Boyd D, Cody R et al. 2013. Hanging Out, Messing Around, and Geeking Out: Kids Living and Learning with New Media Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Ito M, Odgers CL, Schueller SM 2020. Social media and youth wellbeing: what we know and where we could go Rep., Connect. Learn. Alliance Irving, CA: https://clalliance.org/publications/social-media-and-youth-wellbeing-what-we-know-and-where-we-could-go/
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Jensen M, George MJ, Russell MR, Odgers CL 2019. Young adolescents’ digital technology use and mental health symptoms: little evidence of longitudinal or daily linkages. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 7:61416–33 https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702619859336
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  23. Katz A, El Asam A 2019. Vulnerable children in a digital world Rep., Internet Matters London: https://pwxp5srs168nsac2n3fnjyaa-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Vulnerable-Children-in-a-Digital-World-FINAL.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Kauer SD, Mangan C, Sanci L 2014. Do online mental health services improve help-seeking for young people? A systematic review. J. Med. Internet Res. 16:3e66 https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.3103
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  25. Kaye LK, Orben A, Ellis DA, Hunter SC, Houghton S 2020. The conceptual and methodological mayhem of “screen time. .” Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17:103661 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103661
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  26. Keles B, McCrae N, Grealish A 2019. A systematic review: the influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. Int. J. Adolesc. Youth 25:79–83 https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  27. Kenny R, Dooley B, Fitzgerald A 2016. Developing mental health mobile apps: exploring adolescents’ perspectives. Health Inform. J. 22:2265–75 https://doi.org/10.1177/1460458214555041
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  28. Keyes KM, Gary D, O'Malley PM, Hamilton A, Schulenberg J 2019. Recent increases in depressive symptoms among US adolescents: trends from 1991 to 2018. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 54:8987–96 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01697-8
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  29. Kowalski RM, Giumetti GW, Schroeder AN, Lattanner MR 2014. Bullying in the digital age: a critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychol. Bull. 140:41073–137 https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0035618
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Kreski N, Platt J, Rutherford C, Olfson M, Odgers CL et al. 2020. Social media use and depressive symptoms among United States adolescents. J. Adolesc. Health. In press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.07.006
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  31. Lind MN, Byrne ML, Wicks G, Smidt AM, Allen NB 2018. The Effortless Assessment of Risk States (EARS) tool: an interpersonal approach to mobile sensing. J. Med. Internet Res. 5:3e10334 http://doi.org/10.2196/10334
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  32. Lyon AR, Dopp AR, Brewer SK, Kientz JA, Munson SA 2020. Designing the future of children's mental health services. Adm. Policy Ment. Health Ment. Health Serv. Res. 47:735–51 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-020-01038-x
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  33. Mascheroni G, Ólafsson K. 2014. Net children go mobile: risks and opportunities Rep., 2nd ed., Educatt, Milan Italy: http://netchildrengomobile.eu/reports/
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Massing-Schaffer M, Nesi J, Telzer EH, Lindquist KA, Prinstein MJ 2020. Adolescent peer experiences and prospective suicidal ideation: the protective role of online-only friendships. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol In press https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1750019
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  35. McCrae N, Gettings S, Purssell E 2017. Social media and depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review. Adolesc. Res. Rev. 2:4315–30 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0053-4
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  36. Mohr DC, Zhang M, Schueller SM 2017. Personal sensing: understanding mental health using ubiquitous sensors and machine learning. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 13:23–47 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-044949
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. Nesi J, Choukas-Bradley S, Prinstein MJ 2018. Transformation of adolescent peer relations in the social media context: Part 1—a theoretical framework and application to dyadic peer relationships. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 21:3267–94
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Odgers CL. 2018. Smartphones are bad for some teens, not all. Nature 554:7693432–34 https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-02109-8
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  39. Odgers CL. 2019. Why digital tools have not yet revolutionized adolescent health research and what we can do. J. Res. Adolesc. 29:3675–81 https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12534
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  40. Odgers CL, Jensen MR. 2020. Annual research review: adolescent mental health in the digital age: facts, fears, and future directions. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 61:3336–48 https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13190
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  41. Odgers CL, Robb MB. 2020. Tweens, teens, tech, and mental health: coming of age in an increasingly digital, uncertain, and unequal world 2020 Rep., Common Sense Media San Francisco:
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Orben A. 2020a. The Sisyphean cycle of technology panics. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 15:51143–57 https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620919372
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  43. Orben A. 2020b. Teenagers, screens and social media: a narrative review of reviews and key studies. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 55:407–14 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01825-4
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  44. Orben A, Dienlin T, Przybylski AK 2019. Social media's enduring effect on adolescent life satisfaction. PNAS 116:2110226–28 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1902058116
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  45. Orben A, Przybylski AK. 2019. The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nat. Hum. Behav. 3:2173–82 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  46. Orben A, Przybylski AK. 2020. Reply to: Underestimating digital media harm. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4:4349–51 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0840-y
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  47. Plaisime M, Robertson-James C, Mejia L, Núñez A, Wolf J, Reels S 2020. Social media and teens: a needs assessment exploring the potential role of social media in promoting health. Soc. Media Soc. 6:1 https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119886025
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  48. Pretorius C, Chambers D, Coyle D 2019. Young people's online help-seeking and mental health difficulties: systematic narrative review. J. Med. Internet Res. 21:11e13873 https://doi.org/10.2196/13873
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  49. Prinstein MJ, Nesi J, Telzer EH 2020. Commentary: an updated agenda for the study of digital media use and adolescent development—future directions following Odgers & Jensen (2020). J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 61:3349–52 https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13219
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  50. Radovic A, Blackwood AN, Miller E 2015. “It's your Twitter, so you can just say how you feel”: how adolescents with depression and their parents use social media. J. Adolesc. Health 56:2S23 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.10.047
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  51. Reeves B, Robinson T, Ram N 2020. Time for the Human Screenome Project. Nature 577:7790314–17 https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-00032-5
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  52. Rideout V, Fox S. 2018. Digital health practices, social media use, and mental well-being among teens and young adults in the US Rep., Hopelab San Francisco: https://hopelab.org/reports/pdf/a-national-survey-by-hopelab-and-well-being-trust-2018.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Rideout V, Robb MB. 2018. Social media, social life: teens reveal their experiences Rep., Common Sense Media San Francisco: https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/research/2018_cs_socialmediasociallife_fullreport-final-release_2_lowres.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Ringland KE. 2019. A place to play: the (dis)abled embodied experience for autistic children in online spaces. CHI ’19: Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Paper 288 New York: Assoc. Comput Mach. https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300518
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  55. Rosenstein B, Sheehan A. 2018. Letter from JANA Partners & CalSTRS to Apple, Inc., Jan. 19. Harvard Law School Forum on Corporate Governance Harvard Law School Boston, MA: https://corpgov.law.harvard.edu/2018/01/19/joint-shareholder-letter-to-apple-inc/
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Seabrook EM, Kern ML, Rickard NS 2016. Social networking sites, depression, and anxiety: a systematic review. JMIR Ment. Health 3:4e50 https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.5842
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  57. Tanksley T. 2019. Race, education and #BlackLivesMatter: how social media activism shapes the educational experiences of Black college-age women PhD Diss., Univ. Calif Los Angeles: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5br7z2n6
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Toma CL, Hancock JT. 2013. Self-affirmation underlies Facebook use. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 39:3321–31 https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212474694
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  59. Tromholt M. 2016. The Facebook experiment: Quitting Facebook leads to higher levels of well-being. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 19:11661–66 https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0259
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  60. Twenge JM. 2020. Why increases in adolescent depression may be linked to the technological environment. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 32:89–94 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.036
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  61. Twenge JM, Haidt J, Joiner TE, Campbell WK 2020. Underestimating digital media harm. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4:4346–48 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0839-4
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  62. Twenge JM, Joiner TE, Rogers ML, Martin GN 2018. Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among US adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 6:13–17 https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617723376
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  63. Uhls Y. 2016. Media Moms & Digital Dads: A Fact-Not-Fear Approach to Parenting in the Digital Age New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Wasil AR, Gillespie S, Shingleton R, Wilks CR, Weisz JR 2020. Examining the reach of smartphone apps for depression and anxiety. Am. J. Psychiatry 177:5464–65 https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19090905
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  65. Weinstein E. 2018. The social media see-saw: positive and negative influences on adolescents’ affective well-being. New Media Soc 20:103597–623 https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818755634
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  66. Yau JC, Reich SM. 2018. Are the qualities of adolescents’ offline friendships present in digital interactions?. Adolesc. Res. Rev. 3:3339–55 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0059-y
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  67. Ybarra ML, Mitchell KJ, Palmer NA, Reisner SL 2015. Online social support as a buffer against online and offline peer and sexual victimization among U.S. LGBT and non-LGBT youth. Child Abuse Negl 39:123–36 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.08.006
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084815
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error