Practice and Policy Regarding Child Neglect: Lessons from Studies of Institutional Deprivation

Literature Cited

1. Ainsworth MDS, Blehar MC, Waters E, Wall SN. 1978. Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
2. Almas AN, Degnan KA, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH, Fox NA. 2016. IQ at age 12 following a history of institutional care: findings from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Dev. Psychol. 52:111858–66
   [Google Scholar]
3. Almas AN, Papp LJ, Woodbury MR, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH, Fox NA. 2020. The impact of caregiving disruptions of previously institutionalized children on multiple outcomes in late childhood. Child Dev. 91:196–109
   [Google Scholar]
4. Ames EW. 1997. The Development of Romanian Orphanage Children Adopted into Canada. Final Report to Human Resources Development, Canada Burnaby, Ont.: Simon Fraser Univ. Press
5. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Steele H, Zeanah CH, Muhamedrahimov RJ, Vorria P et al. 2011. Attachment and emotional development in institutional care: characteristics and catch up. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 76:462–91
   [Google Scholar]
6. Baldwin JR, Caspi A, Meehan AJ, Ambler A, Arseneault L et al. 2021. Population versus individual prediction of poor health from results of adverse childhood experiences screening. JAMA Pediatr. 175:4385–93
   [Google Scholar]
7. Barth RP, Berrick JD, Garcia AR, Drake B, Jonson-Reid M et al. 2022. Research to consider while effectively re-designing child welfare services. Res. Soc. Work Pract. 32:5483–98
   [Google Scholar]
8. Bartholet E. 2000. Nobody's Children: Abuse and Neglect, Foster Drift and the Adoption Alternative Boston: Beacon Press
9. Bayley N. 1993. Bayley Scales of Infant Development New York: Psychol. Corp., 2nd ed..
10. Belsky J, Schlomer GL, Ellis BJ. 2012. Beyond cumulative risk: distinguishing harshness and unpredictability as determinants of parenting and early life history strategy. Dev. Psychol. 48:3662–73
    [Google Scholar]
11. Bick J, Zeanah CH, Fox NA, Nelson CA. 2018. Memory and executive functioning in 12-year-old children with a history of institutional rearing. Child Dev. 89:2495–508
    [Google Scholar]
12. Bos KJ, Fox N, Zeanah CH, Nelson CA. 2009. Effects of early psychosocial deprivation on the development of memory and executive function. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 3:16
    [Google Scholar]
13. Bowlby J. 1983. Attachment and Loss, Vol. I New York: Basic Books. , 2nd ed..
14. Braaten EB, Norman D. 2006. Intelligence (IQ) testing. Pediatr. Rev. 27:11403–8
    [Google Scholar]
15. Braungart-Rieker JM, Garwood MM, Powers BP, Wang X. 2001. Parental sensitivity, infant affect, and affect regulation: predictors of later attachment. Child Dev. 72:1252–70
    [Google Scholar]
16. Bruce J, Tarullo AR, Gunnar MR. 2009. Disinhibited social behavior among internationally adopted children. Dev. Psychopathol. 21:1157–71
    [Google Scholar]
17. Bywaters P, Bunting L, Davidson G, Hanratty J, Mason W et al. 2016. The relationship between poverty, child abuse and neglect: an evidence review Rep. Joseph Rowntree Found. York, UK: https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/relationship-between-poverty-child-abuse-and-neglect-evidence-review
18. Callaghan BL, Tottenham N. 2016a. The neuro-environmental loop of plasticity: a cross-species analysis of parental effects on emotion circuitry development following typical and adverse caregiving. Neuropsychopharmacology 41:1163–76
    [Google Scholar]
19. Callaghan BL, Tottenham N. 2016b. The stress acceleration hypothesis: effects of early-life adversity on emotion circuits and behavior. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 7:76–81
    [Google Scholar]
20. Casey Fam. Programs 2018. What impacts placement stability?. Casey Family Programs https://www.casey.org/placement-stability-impacts/
    [Google Scholar]
21. Child. Advocacy Inst 2015. Shame on U.S. Rep. Child. Advocacy Inst. San Diego, CA: https://www.firststar.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Shame-on-U.S._FINAL.pdf
22. Chisholm K. 1998. A three year follow-up of attachment and indiscriminate friendliness in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Child Dev. 69:41092–106
    [Google Scholar]
23. Colich NL, Rosen ML, Williams ES, McLaughlin KA. 2020. Biological aging in childhood and adolescence following experiences of threat and deprivation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 146:9721–64
    [Google Scholar]
24. Colvert E, Rutter M, Kreppner J, Beckett C, Castle J et al. 2008. Do theory of mind and executive function deficits underlie the adverse outcomes associated with profound early deprivation?: Findings from the English and Romanian adoptees study. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 36:71057–68
    [Google Scholar]
25. Coohey C. 2003. Defining and classifying supervisory neglect. Child Maltreat. 8:2145–56
    [Google Scholar]
26. Debnath R, Tang A, Zeanah CH, Nelson CA, Fox NA. 2020. The long-term effects of institutional rearing, foster care intervention and disruptions in care on brain electrical activity in adolescence. Dev. Sci. 23:1e12872
    [Google Scholar]
27. Dettlaff AJ 2021. Racial Disproportionality and Disparities in the Child Welfare System Cham, Switz.: Springer
28. Dettlaff AJ, Weber K, Pendleton M, Boyd R, Bettencourt B, Burton L. 2020. It is not a broken system, it is a system that needs to be broken: the upEND movement to abolish the child welfare system. J. Public Child Welfare 14:5500–17
    [Google Scholar]
29. Dobrova-Krol NA, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH, Juffer F. 2010. The importance of quality of care: effects of perinatal HIV infection and early institutional rearing on preschoolers’ attachment and indiscriminate friendliness. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 51:121368–76
    [Google Scholar]
30. Dozier M, Kaufman J, Kobak R, O'Connor TG, Sagi-Schwartz A et al. 2014. Consensus statement on group care for children and adolescents: a statement of policy of the American Orthopsychiatric Association. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 84:3219–25
    [Google Scholar]
31. Drury SS, Theall K, Gleason M, Smyke A, De Vivo I et al. 2012. Telomere length and early severe social deprivation: linking early adversity and cellular aging. Mol. Psychiatry 17:7719–27
    [Google Scholar]
32. Dubowitz H. 2013. Neglect in children. Pediatr. Ann. 42:473–77
    [Google Scholar]
33. Dubowitz H, Pitts SC, Black MM. 2004. Measurement of three major subtypes of child neglect. Child Maltreat. 9:4344–56
    [Google Scholar]
34. Eigsti IM, Weitzman C, Schuh J, De Marchena A, Casey BJ. 2011. Language and cognitive outcomes in internationally adopted children. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:2629–46
    [Google Scholar]
35. Ellis BJ, Boyce WT, Belsky J, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH. 2011. Differential susceptibility to the environment: an evolutionary–neurodevelopmental theory. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:17–28
    [Google Scholar]
36. Ellis BJ, Figueredo AJ, Brumbach BH, Schlomer GL. 2009. Fundamental dimensions of environmental risk: the impact of harsh versus unpredictable environments on the evolution and development of life history strategies. Hum. Nat. 20:2204–68
    [Google Scholar]
37. Ellis HH, Fisher PA, Zaharie S. 2004. Predictors of disruptive behavior, developmental delays, anxiety, and affective symptomatology among institutionally reared Romanian children. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 43:101283–92
    [Google Scholar]
38. Font SA. 2015. Is higher placement stability in kinship foster care by virtue or design?. Child Abuse Negl. 42:99–111
    [Google Scholar]
39. Font SA, Maguire-Jack K. 2020. It's not “just poverty”: educational, social, and economic functioning among young adults exposed to childhood neglect, abuse, and poverty. Child Abuse Negl. 101:104356
    [Google Scholar]
40. Fuhrmann D, Knoll LJ, Blakemore SJ. 2015. Adolescence as a sensitive period of brain development. Trends Cogn. Sci. 19:10558–66
    [Google Scholar]
41. Gabard-Durnam L, McLaughlin KA. 2020. Sensitive periods in human development: charting a course for the future. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 36:120–28
    [Google Scholar]
42. Gee DG. 2020. Caregiving influences on emotional learning and regulation: applying a sensitive period model. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 36:177–84
    [Google Scholar]
43. Gee DG. 2021. When do sensitive periods emerge later in development?. Trends Cogn. Sci. 26:297–98
    [Google Scholar]
44. Gee DG, Casey BJ. 2015. The impact of developmental timing for stress and recovery. Neurobiol. Stress 1:184–94
    [Google Scholar]
45. Gee DG, Gabard-Durnam LJ, Flannery J, Goff B, Humphreys KL et al. 2013. Early developmental emergence of human amygdala-prefrontal connectivity after maternal deprivation. PNAS 110:3915638–43
    [Google Scholar]
46. Gen Justice 2021. Family search and stability act Fact Sheet, Gen Justice Phoenix, AZ: https://www.genjustice.org/_files/ugd/55ca45_2ecde479018e4eaf9d5b88ac9aca9ae9.pdf
47. Ghera MM, Marshall PJ, Fox NA, Zeanah CH, Nelson CA et al. 2009. The effects of foster care intervention on socially deprived institutionalized children's attention and positive affect: results from the BEIP study. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 50:3246–53
    [Google Scholar]
48. Gleason MM, Fox NA, Drury SS, Smyke AT, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH. 2014. Indiscriminate behaviors in previously institutionalized young children. Pediatrics 133:3e657–65
    [Google Scholar]
49. Goldman PS, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Bradford B, Christopoulos A, Ken PLA et al. 2020. Institutionalisation and deinstitutionalisation of children 2: policy and practice recommendations for global, national, and local actors. Lancet Child Adolesc. Health 4:8606–33
    [Google Scholar]
50. Guyon-Harris KL, Humphreys KL, Degnan K, Fox NA, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH. 2019a. A prospective longitudinal study of reactive attachment disorder following early institutional care: considering variable- and person-centered approaches. Attach. Hum. Dev. 21:295–110
    [Google Scholar]
51. Guyon-Harris KL, Humphreys KL, Fox NA, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH. 2018. Course of disinhibited social engagement disorder from early childhood to early adolescence. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 57:5329–35
    [Google Scholar]
52. Guyon-Harris KL, Humphreys KL, Fox NA, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH. 2019b. Signs of attachment disorders and social functioning among early adolescents with a history of institutional care. Child Abuse Negl. 88:96–106
    [Google Scholar]
53. Guyon-Harris KL, Humphreys KL, Miron D, Tibu F, Fox NA et al. 2021. Early caregiving quality predicts consistency of competent functioning from middle childhood to adolescence following early psychosocial deprivation. Dev. Psychopathol. 33:118–28
    [Google Scholar]
54. Hammen C. 2015. Stress sensitivity in psychopathology : mechanisms and consequences. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 124:1152–54
    [Google Scholar]
55. Ho TC, King LS. 2021. Mechanisms of neuroplasticity linking early adversity to depression: developmental considerations. Transl. Psychiatry 11:517
    [Google Scholar]
56. Hodel AS, Hunt RH, Cowell RA, Van Den Heuvel SE, Gunnar MR, Thomas KM 2015. Duration of early adversity and structural brain development in post-institutionalized adolescents. NeuroImage 105:112–19
    [Google Scholar]
57. Hodges J, Tizard B. 1989. Social and family relationships of ex-institutional adolescents. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 30:177–97
    [Google Scholar]
58. Hoksbergen R, Ter Laak J, Rijk K, Van Dijkum C, Stoutjesdijk F 2005. Post-institutional autistic syndrome in Romanian adoptees. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 35:5615–23
    [Google Scholar]
59. Hostinar CE, Gunnar MR. 2013. Future directions in the study of social relationships as regulators of the HPA axis across development. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 42:4564–75
    [Google Scholar]
60. Hostinar CE, Stellern SA, Schaefer C, Carlson SM, Gunnar MR. 2012. Associations between early life adversity and executive function in children adopted internationally from orphanages. PNAS 109:Suppl. 217208–12
    [Google Scholar]
61. Humphreys KL, Gleason MM, Drury SS, Miron D, Nelson CA et al. 2015. Effects of institutional rearing and foster care on psychopathology at age 12 years in Romania: follow-up of an open, randomised controlled trial. Lancet N. Am. Ed. 2:7625–34
    [Google Scholar]
62. Humphreys KL, Guyon-Harris KL, Tibu F, Wade M, Nelson CA et al. 2020a. Psychiatric outcomes following severe deprivation in early childhood: follow-up of a randomized controlled trial at age 16. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 88:121079–90
    [Google Scholar]
63. Humphreys KL, King LS, Guyon-Harris KL, Sheridan MA, McLaughlin KA et al. 2022. Foster care leads to sustained cognitive gains following severe early deprivation. PNAS 119:38e2119318119
    [Google Scholar]
64. Humphreys KL, King LS, Guyon-Harris KL, Zeanah CH. 2021. Caregiver regulation: a modifiable target promoting resilience to early adverse experiences. Psychol. Trauma Theory Res. Pract. Policy 14:S1S63–71
    [Google Scholar]
65. Humphreys KL, Machlin LS, Guyon-Harris KL, Nelson CA, Fox NA, Zeanah CH. 2020b. Psychosocial deprivation and receptive language ability: a two-sample study. J. Neurodev. Disord. 12:136
    [Google Scholar]
66. Humphreys KL, Miron D, McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA, Nelson CA et al. 2018. Foster care promotes adaptive functioning in early adolescence among children who experienced severe, early deprivation. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 59:7811–21
    [Google Scholar]
67. Humphreys KL, Zeanah CH. 2015. Deviations from the expectable environment in early childhood and emerging psychopathology. Neuropsychopharmacology 40:1154–70
    [Google Scholar]
68. Johnson DE, Guthrie D, Smyke AT, Koga SF, Fox NA et al. 2010. Growth and associations between auxology, caregiving environment, and cognition in socially deprived Romanian children randomized to foster versus ongoing institutional care. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 164:6507–16
    [Google Scholar]
69. Johnson W. 2001. Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
70. King LS, Humphreys KL, Gotlib IH. 2019. The neglect-enrichment continuum: characterizing variation in early caregiving environments. Dev. Rev. 51:109–22
    [Google Scholar]
71. Knudsen EI. 2004. Sensitive periods in the development of the brain and behavior. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 16:1412–25
    [Google Scholar]
72. Kornilov SA, Zhukova MA, Ovchinnikova IV, Golovanova IV, Naumova OY et al. 2019. Language outcomes in adults with a history of institutionalization: behavioral and neurophysiological characterization. Sci. Rep. 9:14252
    [Google Scholar]
73. Kreppner JM, Rutter M, Beckett C, Castle J, Colvert E et al. 2007. Normality and impairment following profound early institutional deprivation: a longitudinal follow-up into early adolescence. Dev. Psychol. 43:4931–46
    [Google Scholar]
74. Levin AR, Fox NA, Zeanah CH, Nelson CA. 2015. Social communication difficulties and autism in previously institutionalized children. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 54:2108–15.e1
    [Google Scholar]
75. Luciana M, Nelson CA 2002. Assessment of neuropsychological function through use of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery: performance in 4- to 12-year-old children. Dev. Neuropsychol. 22:3595–624
    [Google Scholar]
76. MacKenzie MJ, Bosk E, Zeanah CH. 2017. Separating families at the border—consequences for children's health and well-being. N. Engl. J. Med. 376:2314–15
    [Google Scholar]
77. Mackes NK, Golm D, Sarkar S, Kumsta R, Rutter M et al. 2020. Early childhood deprivation is associated with alterations in adult brain structure despite subsequent environmental enrichment. PNAS 117:1641–49
    [Google Scholar]
78. Marshall PJ, Fox NA. 2004. A comparison of the electroencephalogram between institutionalized and community children in Romania. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 16:81327–38
    [Google Scholar]
79. Marshall PJ, Reeb B, Fox N, Nelson C, Zeanah C. 2008. Effects of early intervention on EEG power and coherence in previously institutionalized children in Romania. Dev. Psychopathol. 20:3861–80
    [Google Scholar]
80. Masterson R. 2018. Arizona foster care safety bill protects drug-exposed infants and the best interests of children Issue Br., Gen Justice Phoenix, AZ: https://b0dc0492-eb06-45b2-9621-b51932a0c356.usrfiles.com/ugd/b0dc04_ac1db0b86e7a4db9ac71fa935ef2a87f.pdf
81. Matsumoto M, Piersiak H, Letterie M, Humphreys KL. 2020. Population-based estimates of associations between child maltreatment type: a meta-analysis. PsyArXiv https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/cv5qw
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
82. McDermott JM, Troller-Renfree S, Vanderwert RE, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH, Fox NA. 2013. Psychosocial deprivation, executive functions, and the emergence of socio-emotional behavior problems. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7:167
    [Google Scholar]
83. McDermott JM, Westerlund A, Zeanah CH, Nelson CA, Fox NA. 2012. Early adversity and neural correlates of executive function: implications for academic adjustment. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 2:Suppl. 1S59–66
    [Google Scholar]
84. McGoron L, Gleason MM, Smyke AT, Drury SS, Nelson CA et al. 2012. Recovering from early deprivation: Attachment mediates effects of caregiving on psychopathology. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 51:7683–93
    [Google Scholar]
85. McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA. 2016. Beyond cumulative risk: a dimensional approach to childhood adversity. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 25:4239–45
    [Google Scholar]
86. McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA, Humphreys KL, Belsky J, Ellis BJ. 2021. The value of dimensional models of early experience: thinking clearly about concepts and categories. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 16:61463–72
    [Google Scholar]
87. McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA, Lambert HK. 2014. Childhood adversity and neural development: deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 47:578–91
    [Google Scholar]
88. McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA, Nelson CA. 2017. Neglect as a violation of species-expectant experience: neurodevelopmental consequences. Biol. Psychiatry 82:7462–71
    [Google Scholar]
89. McLaughlin KA, Weissman D, Bitrán D. 2019. Childhood adversity and neural development: a systematic review. Annu. Rev. Dev. Psychol. 1:277–312
    [Google Scholar]
90. McSherry D. 2007. Understanding and addressing the “neglect of neglect”: Why are we making a mole-hill out of a mountain?. Child Abuse Negl. 31:6607–14
    [Google Scholar]
91. Merz EC, McCall RB, Wright AJ, Luna B. 2013. Inhibitory control and working memory in post-institutionalized children. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 41:6879–90
    [Google Scholar]
92. Nelson CA, Fox NA, Zeanah CH. 2014. Romania's Abandoned Children: Deprivation, Brain Development, and the Struggle for Recovery Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
93. Nelson CA, Gabard-Durnam LJ. 2020. Early adversity and critical periods: neurodevelopmental consequences of violating the expectable environment. Trends Neurosci. 43:3133–43
    [Google Scholar]
94. Nelson CA, Zeanah CH, Fox NA, Marshall PJ, Smyke AT, Guthrie D. 2007. Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Science 318:58581937–40
    [Google Scholar]
95. Newland B. 2022. Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative investigative report. Investig. Rep., U.S. Dep. Inter. Washington, DC: https://www.bia.gov/sites/default/files/dup/inline-files/bsi_investigative_report_may_2022_508.pdf
96. Newton RR, Litrownik AJ, Landsverk JA. 2000. Children and youth in foster care: disentangling the relationship between problem behaviors and number of placements. Child Abuse Negl. 24:101363–74
    [Google Scholar]
97. O'Connor TG, Cameron JL. 2006. Translating research findings on early experience to prevention. Animal and human evidence on early attachment relationships. Am. J. Prev. Med. 31:6Suppl. 1175–81
    [Google Scholar]
98. Oosterman M, Schuengel C, Wim Slot N, Bullens RAR, Doreleijers TAH 2007. Disruptions in foster care: a review and meta-analysis. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 29:153–76
    [Google Scholar]
99. Parade SH, Huffhines L, Daniels TE, Stroud LR, Nugent NR, Tyrka AR. 2021. A systematic review of childhood maltreatment and DNA methylation: candidate gene and epigenome-wide approaches. Transl. Psychiatry 11:1134
    [Google Scholar]
100. Pollak SD, Nelson CA, Schlaak MF, Roeber BJ, Wewerka SS et al. 2010. Neurodevelopmental effects of early deprivation in postinstitutionalized children. Child Dev. 81:1224–36
     [Google Scholar]
101. Rakhlin N, Hein S, Doyle N, Hart L, Macomber D et al. 2015. Language development of internationally adopted children: Adverse early experiences outweigh the age of acquisition effect. J. Commun. Disord. 57:66–80
     [Google Scholar]
102. Rebbe R. 2018. What is neglect? State legal definitions in the United States. Child Maltreat 23:3303–15
     [Google Scholar]
103. Reichman NE, Teitler JO, Garfinkel I, McLanahan SS 2001. Fragile Families: sample and design. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 23:4–5303–26
     [Google Scholar]
104. Rostad WL, McGill Rogers T, Chaffin MJ 2017. The influence of concrete support on child welfare program engagement, progress, and recurrence. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 72:26–33
     [Google Scholar]
105. Roy P, Rutter M, Pickles A. 2004. Institutional care: associations between overactivity and lack of selectivity in social relationships. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 45:4866–73
     [Google Scholar]
106. Rubin DM, O'Reilly ALR, Luan X, Localio AR 2007. The impact of placement stability on behavioral well-being for children in foster care. Pediatrics 119:2336–44
     [Google Scholar]
107. Rutter M, Sonuga-Barke EJ, Beckett C, Bell CA, Kreppner J et al. 2010. Deprivation-specific psychological patterns: effects of institutional deprivation. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 75:11–252
     [Google Scholar]
108. Sabatini MJ, Ebert P, Lewis DA, Levitt P, Cameron JL, Mirnics K. 2007. Amygdala gene expression correlates of social behavior in monkeys experiencing maternal separation. J. Neurosci. 27:123295–304
     [Google Scholar]
109. Schmidt M. 2021. Are you a foster care abolitionist yet? The children and their mothers sure hope so. Race & Social Justice Law Review Apr. 6. https://race-and-social-justice-review.law.miami.edu/foster-care-abolitionist-yet-children-mothers-hope-so/
     [Google Scholar]
110. Shauffer C. 2012. The Quality Parenting Initiative: fostering in the 21st century. Fostering Families Today May/June 24–25
     [Google Scholar]
111. Sheridan MA, Fox NA, Zeanah CH, McLaughlin KA, Nelson CA. 2012. Variation in neural development as a result of exposure to institutionalization early in childhood. PNAS 109:3212927–32
     [Google Scholar]
112. Sheridan MA, McLaughlin KA. 2014. Dimensions of early experience and neural development: deprivation and threat. Trends Cogn. Sci. 18:11580–85
     [Google Scholar]
113. Silvers JA, Lumian DS, Gabard-Durnam L, Gee DG, Goff B et al. 2016. Previous institutionalization is followed by broader amygdala–hippocampal–PFC network connectivity during aversive learning in human development. J. Neurosci. 36:246420–30
     [Google Scholar]
114. Smith KE, Pollak SD. 2020. Re-thinking concepts and categories for understanding the neurodevelopmental effects of childhood adversity. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 16:167–93
     [Google Scholar]
115. Smyke AT, Dumitrescu A, Zeanah CH. 2002. Attachment disturbances in young children. I: The continuum of caretaking casualty. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 41:8972–82
     [Google Scholar]
116. Smyke AT, Koga SF, Johnson DE, Fox NA, Marshall PJ, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH. 2007. The caregiving context in institution-reared and family-reared infants and toddlers in Romania. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 48:2210–18
     [Google Scholar]
117. Smyke AT, Zeanah CH, Fox NA, Nelson CA, Guthrie D 2010. Placement in foster care enhances quality of attachment among young institutionalized children. Child Dev. 81:1212–23
     [Google Scholar]
118. Smyke AT, Zeanah CH, Gleason MM, Drury SS, Fox NA et al. 2012. A randomized controlled trial comparing foster care and institutional care for children with signs of reactive attachment disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 169:508–14
     [Google Scholar]
119. Sonuga-Barke EJS, Kennedy M, Kumsta R, Knights N, Golm D et al. 2017. Child-to-adult neurodevelopmental and mental health trajectories after early life deprivation: the young adult follow-up of the longitudinal English and Romanian Adoptees study. Lancet N. Am. Ed. 389:100781539–48
     [Google Scholar]
120. St. Petersb.–USA Orphanage Res. Team 2008. The effects of early social-emotional and relationship experience on the development of young orphanage children. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 73:31–295
     [Google Scholar]
121. Stativa E. 2000. Survey on child abuse in residential care institutions in Romania. Rep. Better Care Netw. New York, NY: https://bettercarenetwork.org/library/particular-threats-to-childrens-care-and-protection/effects-of-institutional-care/survey-on-child-abuse-in-residential-care-institutions-in-romania
     [Google Scholar]
122. Stativa E, Russ A, Parris S, Pennings J, Clocotici O 2017. Institutional neglect in Romania's long-term residential centers in the 1990s from the perspective of children's rights. Child Maltreatment in Residential Care: History, Research, and Current Implications AV Rus, SR Parris, E Stativa 27–60 New York, NY: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
123. Stoltenborgh M, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH. 2013. The neglect of child neglect: a meta-analytic review of the prevalence of neglect. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 48:3345–55
     [Google Scholar]
124. Tarullo AR, Bruce J, Gunnar MR. 2007. False belief and emotion understanding in post-institutionalized children. Soc. Dev. 16:157–78
     [Google Scholar]
125. Tingberg B, Nilsson D. 2020. Child neglect - still a neglected problem in the global world: a review. J. Adv. Pediatr. Child Health 3:138–46
     [Google Scholar]
126. Tizard B, Cooperman O, Joseph A, Tizard J 1972. Environmental effects on language development: a study of young children in long-stay residential nurseries. Child Dev. 43:2337–58
     [Google Scholar]
127. Tizard B, Hodges J. 1978. The effect of early institutional rearing on the development of eight year old children. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 19:299–118
     [Google Scholar]
128. Tizard B, Rees J. 1974. A comparison of the effects of adoption, restoration to the natural mother, and continued institutionalization on the cognitive development of four-year-old children. Child Dev. 45:192–99
     [Google Scholar]
129. Tottenham N, Hare TA, Millner A, Gilhooly T, Zevin JD, Casey BJ. 2011. Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation. Dev. Sci. 14:2190–204
     [Google Scholar]
130. Unrau YA, Seita JR, Putney KS. 2008. Former foster youth remember multiple placement moves: a journey of loss and hope. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 30:111256–66
     [Google Scholar]
131. US Dep. Health Hum. Serv 2020. Child maltreatment 2018 Rep. US Dept. Health Hum. Serv. Washington, DC: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/report/child-maltreatment-2018
132. US Dep. Health Hum. Serv 2021. Child maltreatment 2019 Rep. US Dept. Health Hum. Serv. Washington, DC: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/report/child-maltreatment-2019
133. van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Duschinsky R, Fox NA, Goldman PS et al. 2020. Institutionalisation and deinstitutionalisation of children 1: a systematic and integrative review of evidence regarding effects on development. Lancet Psychiatry 7:8703–20
     [Google Scholar]
134. Vanderwert RE, Marshall PJ, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH, Fox NA. 2010. Timing of intervention affects brain electrical activity in children exposed to severe psychosocial neglect. PLOS ONE 5:7e11415
     [Google Scholar]
135. Vanderwert RE, Zeanah CH, Fox NA, Nelson CA. 2016. Normalization of EEG activity among previously institutionalized children placed into foster care: a 12-year follow-up of the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 17:68–75
     [Google Scholar]
136. VanTieghem M, Korom M, Flannery J, Choy T, Caldera C et al. 2021. Longitudinal changes in amygdala, hippocampus and cortisol development following early caregiving adversity. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 48:100916
     [Google Scholar]
137. Wade M, Fox NA, Zeanah CH, Nelson CA. 2019. Long-term effects of institutional rearing, foster care, and brain activity on memory and executive functioning. PNAS 116:51808–13
     [Google Scholar]
138. Wald MS. 2015. Beyond CPS: developing an effective system for helping children in “neglectful” families: Policymakers have failed to address the neglect of neglect. Child Abuse Negl. 41:49–66
     [Google Scholar]
139. Wechsler D. 2002. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assess. , 3rd ed..
140. Welch GL, Bonner BL. 2013. Fatal child neglect: characteristics, causation, and strategies for prevention. Child Abuse Negl. 37:10745–52
     [Google Scholar]
141. Wolock I, Horowitz B. 1984. Child maltreatment as a social problem: the neglect of neglect. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 54:4530–43
     [Google Scholar]
142. Yagmurlu B, Berument SK, Celimli S. 2005. The role of institution and home contexts in theory of mind development. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 26:5521–37
     [Google Scholar]
143. Zeanah CH, Egger HL, Smyke AT, Nelson CA, Fox NA et al. 2009. Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children. Am. J. Psychiatry 166:7777–85
     [Google Scholar]
144. Zeanah CH, Fox NA, Nelson CA. 2013. Attachment relationships in the context of severe deprivation: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Int. Soc. Study Behav. Dev. Bull. 2013:16–9
     [Google Scholar]
145. Zeanah CH, Humphreys KL. 2018. Child abuse and neglect. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 57:9637–44
     [Google Scholar]
146. Zeanah CH, Humphreys KL, Fox NA, Nelson CA. 2017. Alternatives for abandoned children: insights from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 15:182–88
     [Google Scholar]
147. Zeanah CH, Nelson CA, Fox NA, Smyke AT, Marshall P et al. 2003. Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Dev. Psychopathol. 15:885–907
     [Google Scholar]
148. Zeanah CH, Smyke AT, Koga SF, Carlson E, Nelson CA et al. 2005. Attachment in institutionalized and community children in Romania. Child Dev. 76:51015–28
     [Google Scholar]