1932

Abstract

We offer a comprehensive review of the theoretical underpinnings and existing empirical evidence in the implicit leadership and implicit followership theories domain. After briefly touching on the historical roots of information-processing approaches to leadership and leader categorization theory, we focus on current contextualized and dynamic perspectives. We specifically present neural network approaches and adaptive resonance processes that guide leadership perceptions. We further address measurement issues, emerging areas of study such as implicit leadership theories, and identity and cross-cultural issues. We offer specific avenues for future research in the form of a systematic list of unanswered research questions and further outline leadership development implications.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-045434
2020-01-21
2024-10-04
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/orgpsych/7/1/annurev-orgpsych-012119-045434.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-045434&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Acton BP, Foti RJ, Lord RG, Gladfelter JA 2019. Putting emergence back in leadership emergence: a dynamic, multilevel, process-oriented framework. Leadersh. Q. 30:145–64
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Adriasola E, Lord RG. 2019. From a leader and a follower to shared leadership: a review of identity as antecedent of shared leadership. The Connecting Leader: Serving Concurrently as Leader and a Follower Z Jaser Charlotte, NC: Inf. Age Publ. In press
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Agle BR, Nagarajan NJ, Sonnenfeld JA, Srinivasan D 2006. Does CEO charisma matter? An empirical analysis of the relationships among organizational performance, environmental uncertainty, and top management team perceptions of CEO charisma. Acad. Manag. J. 49:161–74
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Alipour KK, Mohammed S, Martinez PN 2017. Incorporating temporality into implicit leadership and followership theories: exploring inconsistencies between time-based expectations and actual behaviors. Leadersh. Q. 28:2300–16
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Ashforth BE, Schinoff BS. 2016. Identity under construction: how individuals come to define themselves in organizations. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 3:111–37
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Avolio BJ, Gardner WL. 2005. Authentic leadership development: getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. Leadersh. Q. 16:315–38
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Ayman-Nolley S, Ayman R. 2005. Children's implicit theories of leadership. Implicit Leadership TheoriesEssays and Explorations B Schyns, JR Meindl 227–74 Greenwich, CT: Inf. Age Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Baltes BB, Parker CP. 2000. Understanding and removing the effects of performance cues on behavioral ratings. J. Bus. Psychol. 15:229–46
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Bass BM, Avolio BJ. 1989. Potential biases in leadership measures: how prototypes, leniency, and general satisfaction relate to ratings and rankings of transformational and transactional leadership constructs. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 49:3509–27
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bergman LR, Vargha A. 2013. Matching method to problem: a developmental science perspective. Eur. J. Dev. Psychol. 10:9–28
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Binning JF, Lord RG. 1980. Boundary conditions for performance cue effects on group process ratings: familiarity versus type of feedback. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 26:115–30
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Boyd K, Foti RJ, Shah Y 2016. Measuring the effects of contextual constraints on perceptions of leadership Paper presented at the 31st Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Anaheim, CA:
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Brodbeck FC, Frese M, Akerblom S, Audia G, Bakacsi G et al. 2000. Cultural variation of leadership prototypes across 22 European countries. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 73:1–29
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Brown ME, Treviño LK. 2006. Ethical leadership: a review and future directions. Leadersh. Q. 17:6595–616
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bryman A. 1987. The generalizability of implicit leadership theory. J. Soc. Psychol. 127:2129–41
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Cantor N, Mischel W. 1977. Traits as prototypes: effects on recognition memory. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 35:38–48
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Chartrand TL, Bargh JA. 1999. The chameleon effect: the perception–behavior link and social interaction. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 76:6893–910
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Chong S, Djurdjevic E, Johnson RE 2017. Implicit measures for leadership research. Handbook of Methods in Leadership Research B Schyns, RJ Hall, P Neves 13–47 Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Clapp-Smith R, Hammond MM, Lester GV, Palanski M 2019. Promoting identity development in leadership education: a multidomain approach to developing the whole leader. J. Manag. Educ. 43:110–34
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Coyle PT, Foti R. 2015. If you're not with me you're…? Examining prototypes and cooperation in leader–follower relationships. J. Leadersh. Organ. Stud. 22:161–74
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Day DV. 2000. Leadership development: a review in context. Leadersh. Q. 11:581–613
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Day DV, Sin H-P. 2011. Longitudinal tests of an integrative model of leader development: charting and understanding developmental trajectories. Leadersh. Q. 22:545–60
    [Google Scholar]
  23. DeRue DS. 2011. Adaptive leadership theory: leading and following as a complex adaptive process. Res. Organ. Behav. 31:125–50
    [Google Scholar]
  24. DeRue DS, Ashford SJ. 2010. Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leader identity construction in organizations. Acad. Manag. Rev. 35:627–47
    [Google Scholar]
  25. DeRue DS, Nahrgang JD, Ashford SJ 2015. Interpersonal perceptions and the emergence of leadership structures in groups: a network perspective. Organ. Sci. 26:1192–209
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Eden D, Leviatan U. 1975. Implicit leadership theory as determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. J. Appl. Psychol. 60:736–41
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Edwards JR. 1994. The study of congruence in organizational behavior research: critique and a proposed alternative. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 58:51–100
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Ehrhart MG. 2012. Self-concept, implicit leadership theories, and follower preferences for leadership. Z. Psychol. 220:231–40
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Engle EM, Lord RG. 1997. Implicit theories, self-schemas, and leader-member exchange. Acad. Manag. J. 40:988–1010
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Ensari N, Murphy SE. 2003. Cross-cultural variations in leadership perceptions and attribution of charisma to the leader. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 92:152–66
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Epitropaki O, Kark R, Mainemelis C, Lord RG 2017. Leadership, followership and identity processes: a multilevel review. Leadersh. Q. 28:104–29
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Epitropaki O, Martin R. 2004. Implicit leadership theories in applied settings: factor structure, generalizability and stability over time. J. Appl. Psychol. 89:293–310
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Epitropaki O, Martin R. 2005. From ideal to real: a longitudinal study of the role of implicit leadership theories on leader-member exchanges and employee outcomes. J. Appl. Psychol. 90:4659–76
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Epitropaki O, Mueller J, Lord RG 2018. Unpacking the socio-cognitive foundations of creative leadership: bridging implicit leadership and implicit creativity theories. Creative Leadership: Contexts and Prospects C Mainemelis, O Epitropaki, R Kark 39–55 New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Epitropaki O, Sy T, Martin R, Tram-Quon S, Topakas A 2013. Implicit leadership and followership theories “in the wild”: taking stock of information-processing approaches to leadership and followership in organizational settings. Leadersh. Q. 24:858–81
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Foti RJ, Bray BC, Thompson NJ, Allgood SF 2012. Know thy self, know thy leader: contributions of a pattern-oriented approach to examining leadership perceptions. Leadersh. Q. 23:702–17
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Foti RJ, Fraser SL, Lord RG 1982. Effects of leadership labels and prototypes on perceptions of political leaders. J. Appl. Psychol. 67:326–33
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Foti RJ, Hansbrough TK, Epitropaki O, Coyle PT 2017. Dynamic viewpoints on implicit leadership and followership theories: approaches, findings, and future directions. Leadersh. Q. 28:261–66
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Foti RJ, Knee RE Jr, Backert RS 2008. Multi-level implications of framing leadership perceptions as a dynamic process. Leadersh. Q. 19:178–94
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Foti RJ, Lord RG. 1987. Prototypes and scripts: the effects of alternative methods of processing information. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 39:318–41
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Foti RJ, McCusker ME. 2017. Person-oriented approaches to leadership: a roadmap forward. Handbook of Methods in Leadership Research B Schyns, R Hall, P Neves 195–228 Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Gabora L, Rosch E, Aerts D 2008. Toward an ecological theory of concepts. Ecol. Psychol. 20:84–116
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Galambos JA, Abelson RP, Black JB 1986. Knowledge Structures Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Gerstner CR, Day DV. 1994. Cross-cultural comparison of leadership prototypes. Leadersh. Q. 5:2121–34
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Giessner SR, van Knippenberg D, Sleebos E 2009. License to fail? How leader group prototypicality moderates the effect of leader performance on perceptions of leadership effectiveness. Leadersh. Q. 20:434–51
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Grossberg S. 2013. Adaptive resonance theory: how a brain learns to consciously attend, learn and recognize a changing world. Neural Netw 37:1–47
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Guillén L, Mayo M, Korotov K 2015. Is leadership a part of me? A leader identity approach to understanding the motivation to lead. Leadersh. Q. 26:5802–20
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Hains SC, Hogg MA, Duck JM 1997. Self-categorization and leadership: effects of group prototypicality and leader stereotypicality. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 23:1087–99
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Hanges PJ, Lord RG, Dickson MW 2000. An information-processing perspective on leadership and culture: a case for connectionist architecture. Appl. Psychol. 49:1133–61
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Hannah ST, Woolfolk RL, Lord RG 2009. Leader self‐structure: a framework for positive leadership. J. Organ. Behav. 30:2269–90
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Hansbrough TK, Lord RG, Schyns B 2015. Reconsidering the accuracy of follower leadership ratings. Leadersh. Q. 26:220–37
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Haslam SA, Platow MJ. 2001. The link between leadership and followership: how affirming social identity translates vision into action. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 27:111469–79
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hoffman EL, Lord RG. 2013. A taxonomy of event-level dimensions: implications for understanding leadership processes, behavior, and performance. Leadersh. Q. 24:558–71
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Hogg MA. 2001. A social identity theory of leadership. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 5:3184–200
    [Google Scholar]
  55. House R, Javidan M, Hanges P, Dorfman P 2002. Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE. J. World Bus. 37:13–10
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Jaser Z. 2017. Pulled in two directions. Being in concert a leader to some and a follower to others. Acad. Manag. Proc. 2017. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2017.107
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  57. Junker NM, van Dick R 2014. Implicit theories in organizational settings: a systematic review and research agenda of implicit leadership and followership theories. Leadersh. Q. 25:1154–73
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Karelaia N, Guillén L. 2014. Me, a woman and a leader: positive social identity and identity conflict. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 125:204–19
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Keller T. 1999. Images of the familiar: individual differences and implicit leadership theories. Leadersh. Q. 10:4589–607
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Keller T. 2003. Parental images as a guide to leadership sensemaking: an attachment perspective on implicit leadership theories. Leadersh. Q. 14:141–60
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Kruse ET, Sy T. 2011. Manipulating implicit theories through inducing affect. Acad. Manag. Proc. 2011. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2011.65870487
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  62. Kwok N, Hanig S, Brown DJ, Shen W 2018. How leader role identity influences the process of leader emergence: a social network analysis. Leadersh. Q. 29:648–62
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Lankau MJ, Chung BG. 2009. A comparison of American and international prototypes of successful managers. J. Leadersh. Stud. 3:7–18
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Larson JR Jr 1982. Cognitive mechanisms mediating the impact of implicit leadership theories of leader behavior on leader behavior ratings. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 29:129–40
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Larson JR Jr, Lingle JH, Scerbo MM. 1984. The impact of performance cues on leader-behavior ratings: the role of selective information availability and probabilistic response bias. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 33:323–49
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Liden RC, Wayne SJ, Liao C, Meuser JD 2014. Servant leadership and serving culture: influence on individual and unit performance. Acad. Manag. J. 57:51434–52
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Ling W, Chia RC, Fang L 2000. Chinese implicit leadership theory. J. Soc. Psychol. 140:729–39
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Lord RG. 1985a. Accuracy in behavioral measurement: an alternative definition based on raters' cognitive schema and signal detection theory. J. Appl. Psychol. 70:66–71
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Lord RG. 1985b. An information processing approach to social perceptions, leadership perceptions and behavioral measurement on organizational settings. Research in Organizational Behavior BM Staw, L Cummings 87–128 Greenwich, CT: JAI Press
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Lord RG, Binning JF, Rush MC, Thomas JC 1978. The effect of performance cues and leader behavior on questionnaire ratings of leadership behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 21:27–39
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Lord RG, Brown DJ. 2004. Leadership Processes and Follower Self-Identity Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Lord RG, Brown DJ, Freiberg SJ 1999. Understanding the dynamics of leadership: the role of follower self-concepts in the leader/follower relationship. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 78:3167–203
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Lord RG, Brown DJ, Harvey JL 2001a. System constraints on leadership perceptions, behavior and influence: an example of connectionist level processing. Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Group Processes MA Hogg, S Tindale 283–310 Malden, MA: Blackwell Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Lord RG, Brown DJ, Harvey JL, Hall RJ 2001b. Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multi-level consequences for leadership perceptions. Leaderh. Q. 12:311–38
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lord RG, Foti RJ, De Vader CL 1984. A test of leadership categorization theory: internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 34:3343–78
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Lord RG, Foti RJ, Phillips JS 1982. A theory of leadership categorization. Leadership: Beyond Establishment Views JG Hunt, V Sekaran, C Schriesheim 104–21 Carbondale, IL: S. Ill. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Lord RG, Maher KJ. 1991. Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Performance Boston: Unwin Hyman
    [Google Scholar]
  78. MacDonald HA, Sulsky LM, Brown DJ 2008. Leadership and perceiver cognition: examining the role of self-identity in implicit leadership theories. Hum. Perform. 21:333–53
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Mainemelis C, Kark R, Epitropaki O 2015. Creative leadership: a multi-context conceptualization. Acad. Manag. Ann. 9:393–482
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Martell RF, Evans DP. 2005. Source-monitoring training: toward reducing rater expectancy effects in behavioral management. J. Appl. Psychol. 90:5956–63
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Martin R, Epitropaki O, O'Broin L 2018. Methodological issues in leadership training research: in pursuit of causality. Methodological Challenges and Advances in Managerial and Organizational Cognition RJ Galavan, GP Sund, KJ Hodgkinson 73–94 Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Meindl JR. 1995. The romance of leadership as a follower-centric theory: a social constructionist approach. Leadersh. Q. 6:329–41
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Miscenko D, Guenter H, Day DV 2017. Am I a leader? Examining leader identity development over time. Leadersh. Q. 28:605–20
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Morgeson FP, Mitchell TR, Liu D 2015. Event system theory: an event-oriented approach to the organizational sciences. Acad. Manag. Rev. 40:515–37
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Offermann LR, Coats MR. 2017. Implicit theories of leadership: stability and change over two decades. Leadersh. Q. 29:513–22
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Offermann LR, Kennedy JK, Wirtz PW 1994. Implicit leadership theories: content, structure, and generalizability. Leadersh. Q. 5:143–58
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Porr D, Fields D. 2006. Implicit leadership effects on multi-source ratings for management development. J. Manag. Psychol. 21:651–68
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Phillips JS. 1984. The accuracy of leadership ratings: a cognitive categorization perspective. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 33:125–38
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Phillips JS, Lord RG. 1981. Causal attributions and perceptions of leadership. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 28:143–63
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Phillips JS, Lord RG. 1982. Schematic information processing and perceptions of leadership in problem solving groups. J. Appl. Psychol. 67:486–92
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Riggs B, Porter C. 2017. Are there advantages to seeing leadership the same? A test of the mediating effects of LMX on the relationship between ILT congruence and employees’ development. Leadersh. Q. 28:285–99
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Ritter BA, Lord RG. 2007. The impact of previous leaders on the evaluation of new leaders: an alternative to prototype matching. J. Appl. Psychol. 92:1683–95
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Rosch E. 1978. Principles of categorization. Cognition and Categorization E Rosch, BB Lloyd 27–48 Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Rosette AS, Leonardelli GJ, Phillips KW 2008. The white standard: racial bias in leader categorization. J. Appl. Psychol. 93:758–77
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Ross L. 1977. The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: distortions in the attribution process. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 10 L Berkowitz 173–220 New York: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Rush MC, Phillips JS, Lord RG 1981. Effects of a temporal delay in rating on leader behavior descriptions: a laboratory investigation. J. Appl. Psychol. 66:442–50
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Rush MC, Russell JEA. 1988. Leader prototypes and prototype-contingent consensus in leader behavior descriptions. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 23:88–104
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Rush MC, Thomas JC, Lord RG 1977. Implicit leadership theory: a potential threat to the internal validity of leader behavior questionnaires. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 20:93–110
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Schank RC, Abelson RP. 1977. Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Schneider DJ. 2005. The Psychology of Stereotyping New York: Guilford Press
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Schyns B, Kiefer T, Kerschreiter R, Tymon A 2011. Teaching implicit leadership theories to develop leaders and leadership: how and why it can make a difference. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 10:397–408
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Scott KA, Brown DJ. 2006. Female first, leader second? Gender bias in the encoding of leadership behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 101:2230–42
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Shamir B, Pillai R, Bligh MC, Uhl-Bien M 2007. Follower-Centered Perspectives on Leadership: A Tribute to the Memory of James R. Meindl Charlotte, NC: Inf. Age Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Shondrick SJ, Dinh JE, Lord RG 2010. Developments in implicit leadership theory and cognitive science: applications to improving measurement and understanding alternatives to hierarchical leadership. Leadersh. Q. 21:959–78
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Shondrick SJ, Lord RG. 2010. Implicit leadership and followership theories: dynamic structures for leadership perceptions, memory and leader-follower processes. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 25 GP Hodgkinson, JK Ford 1–33 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Smith ER. 1998. Mental representation and memory. The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2 DT Gilbert, ST Fiske, G Lindzey 391–445 New York: McGraw-Hill
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Smith JA, Foti RJ. 1998. A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence. Leadersh. Q. 9:147–60
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Smolensky P. 1986. Information processing in dynamical systems: foundations of harmony theory. Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition, Vol. 1: Foundations DE Rumelhart, JL McClelland 194–281 Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Steffens NK, Haslam SA, Jetten J, Mols F 2018. Our followers are lions, theirs are sheep: how social identity shapes theories about followership and social influence. Political Psychol 39:23–42
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Stock RM, Özbek-Potthoff G. 2014. Implicit leadership in an intercultural context: theory extension and empirical investigation. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 25:1651–68
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Sy T. 2010. What do you think of followers? Examining the content, structure and consequences of implicit followership theories. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 113:73–84
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Sy T, Eden D. 2014. The art of followership: applying organizational aesthetics to trigger implicit followership theories and corresponding action tendencies Poster presented at the 29th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Honolulu, HI:
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Sy T, Shore LM, Strauss J, Shore TH, Tram S et al. 2010. Leadership perceptions as a function of race-occupation fit: the case of Asian Americans. J. Appl. Psychol. 95:902–19
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Tajfel H. 1978. Differentiation Between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations New York: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Topakas A. 2011. Measurement of implicit leadership theories and their effect on leadership processes and outcomes PhD Diss., Aston Univ Birmingham, UK:
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Trichas S, Schyns B, Lord RG, Hall RJ 2017. Facing leaders: facial expression and leadership perception. Leadersh. Q. 28:317–33
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Tu M-H, Bono JE, Shum C, LaMontagne L 2018. Breaking the cycle: the effects of role model performance and ideal leadership self-concepts on abusive supervision spillover. J. Appl. Psychol. 103:689–702
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Tulving E. 1985. How many memory systems are there?. Am. Psychol. 40:385–98
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Tulving E. 2005. Episodic memory and autonoesis: Uniquely human?. The Missing Link in Cognition HS Terrace, J Metcalfe 4–56 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Uhl-Bien M, Riggio RE, Lowe KB, Carsten MK 2014. Followership theory: a review and research agenda. Leadersh. Q. 25:83–104
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Uhlmann EL, Leavitt K, Menges JL, Koopman J, Howe M, Johnson RE 2012. Getting explicit about the implicit: a taxonomy of implicit measures and guide for their use in organizational research. Organ. Res. Methods 15:4553–601
    [Google Scholar]
  122. van Gils S, van Quaquebeke N, van Knippenberg D 2010. The X-factor: on the relevance of implicit leadership and followership theories for leader–member exchange agreement. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 19:333–63
    [Google Scholar]
  123. van Knippenberg D, Hogg MA 2018. Social identifications in organizational behavior. The Self at Work DL Ferris, RE Johnson, C Sedikides 72–90 New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Weick KE. 1995. Sensemaking in Organizations Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Weiss HW, Adler S. 1981. Cognitive complexity and the structure of implicit leadership theories. J. Appl. Psychol. 66:69–78
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Whiteley P, Sy T, Johnson SK 2012. Leaders' conceptions of followers: implications for naturally occurring Pygmalion effects. Leadersh. Q. 23:5822–34
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Winocur G, Moscovitch M, Bontempi B 2010. Memory formation and long-term retention in humans and animals: convergence towards a transformation account of hippocampal–neocortical interactions. Neuropsychologia 48:82339–56
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Wofford JC, Goodwin VL, Whittington JL 1998. A field study of a cognitive approach to understanding transformational and transactional leadership. Leadersh. Q. 9:55–84
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Wofford JC, Joplin JR, Cornforth B 1996. Use of simultaneous verbal protocols in analysis of group leaders' cognitions. Psychol. Rep. 79:847–58
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Zarate MA, Smith ER. 1990. Person categorization and stereotyping. Soc. Cogn. 8:161–85
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-045434
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-045434
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error