1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior
  4. Volume 11, 2024
  5. Article

Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior

Volume 11, 2024

Leadership Emergence: Answering the “How” and “Why” Questions by Considering Levels of Analysis and Form of Emergence

Abstract

Leadership emergence is an inherently dynamic process whereby certain individuals come to be seen as leaders by others, some of whom will choose to follow them. The circumstances under which leadership emergence occurs depend on the persons involved, their interactions, and the context. Yet leadership research has too often viewed leadership emergence from a static and entity perspective, where some individuals are assumed to have qualities that predispose them to lead, without explaining how and why emergence occurs. Alternatively, we apply a typology that examines leadership emergence across levels of analysis (event, individual, dyadic, group, and organizational) and forms of emergence (global, compositional, and compilational). We examine representative theories of leadership emergence at the intersections of these considerations to demonstrate the utility of adopting a multilevel and dynamic perspective. Additionally, we offer recommendations for applying this typology to advance future theory and research into leadership emergence.

Keyword(s): form of emergence, informal and formal leadership, leadership emergence, levels of analysis, temporal leadership processes, unit-level properties
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-040430
2024-01-22
2025-04-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/organ/11/1/annurev-orgpsych-110721-040430.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-040430&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Acton BP, Foti RJ, Lord RG, Gladfelter JA. 2019. Putting emergence back in leadership emergence: a dynamic, multilevel, process-oriented framework. Leadersh. Q. 30:145–64
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Alvesson M, Einola K. 2019. Warning for excessive positivity: authentic leadership and other traps in leadership studies. Leadersh. Q. 30:383–95
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Antonakis J, Bastardoz N, Jacquart P, Shamir B. 2016. Charisma: an ill-defined and ill-measured gift. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 3:293–319
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Antonakis J, Fenley M, Liechti S. 2011. Can charisma be taught? Tests of two interventions. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 10:374–96
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Avolio BJ, Walumbwa FO, Weber TJ. 2009. Leadership: current theories, research, and future directions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60:421–49
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Badura KL, Galvin BM, Lee MY. 2022. Leadership emergence: an integrative review. J. Appl. Psychol. 107:2069–100
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Bales RF. 1950. Interaction Process Analysis: A Method for the Study of Small Groups Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bales RF 1958. Task and social roles in problem-solving groups. Readings in Social Psychology EE Maccoby, TM Newcomb, EL Hartley 437–47 New York: Holt
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Bales RF, Cohen SP, Williamson SA. 1979. SYMLOG: A System for the Multiple Level Observation of Groups New York: Free
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Bales RF, Slater PE 1955. Role differentiation in small, decision making groups. Family, Socialization, and Interaction Process T Parsons, RF Bales 259–306 Glencoe, IL: Free
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Balkundi P, Harrison DA. 2006. Ties, leaders, and time in teams: strong inference about network structure's effects on team viability and performance. Acad. Manag. J. 49:49–68
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Banks GC, Engemann KN, Williams CE, Gooty J, McCauley KD, Medaugh MR. 2017. A meta-analytic review and future research agenda of charismatic leadership. Leadersh. Q. 28:508–29
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Barreto NB, Hogg MA. 2017. Evaluation of and support for group prototypical leaders: a meta-analysis of twenty years of empirical research. Soc. Influence 12:41–55
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Bastardoz N, Jacquart P, Antonakis J. 2022. Effect of crises on charisma signaling: a regression discontinuity design. Leadersh. Q. 33:101590
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Blake AB, Luu VH, Petrenko OV, Gardner WL, Moergen KJN, Ezerins ME. 2022. Let's agree about nice leaders: a literature review and meta-analysis of agreeableness and its relationship with leadership outcomes. Leadersh. Q. 33:101593
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Borgatti SP, Mehra A, Brass DJ, Labianca G. 2009. Network analysis in the social sciences. Science 323:892–95
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Bradbury H, Lichtenstein BMB. 2000. Relationality in organizational research: exploring the space between. Organ. Sci. 11:551–64
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Burke CS, Stagl KC, Klein C, Goodwin GF, Salas E, Halpin SM. 2006. What type of leadership behaviors are functional in teams? A meta-analysis. Leadersh. Q. 17:288–307
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Burke PJ. 1967. The development of task and socio-emotional role differentiation. Sociometry 30:379–92
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Carpenter MA, Geletkanycz MA, Sanders WG. 2004. Upper echelons research revisited: antecedents, elements, and consequences of top management team composition. J. Manag. 30:749–78
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Chen CC, Belkin LY, McNamee R, Kurtzberg TR. 2013. Charisma attribution during organizational change: the importance of followers’ emotions and concern for well-being. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 43:1136–58
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Chiu CY, Nahrgang JD, Bartram A, Wang J, Tesluk PE. 2021. Leading the team, but feeling dissatisfied: investigating informal leaders’ energetic activation and work satisfaction and the supporting role of formal leadership. J. Organ. Behav. 42:527–50
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Cogliser CC, Gardner WL, Gavin MB, Broberg JC. 2012. Big five personality factors and leader emergence in virtual teams: relationships with team trustworthiness, member performance contributions, and team performance. Group Organ. Manag. 37:752–84
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Conger JA, Kanungo RN. 1987. Toward a behavioral theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings. Acad. Manag. Rev. 12:637–47
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Cox JW, Madison K, Eva N. 2022. Revisiting emergence in emergent leadership: an integrative, multi-perspective review. Leadersh. Q. 33:101579
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Cresswell JW, Plano Clark VL. 2011. Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Cropanzano R, Dasborough MT, Weiss HM. 2017. Affective events and the development of leader–member exchange. Acad. Manag. Rev. 42:233–58
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Dachler HP, Hosking D-M 1995. The primacy of relations in socially constructing organizational realities. Management and Organization: Relational Alternatives to Individualism D-M Hosking, HP Dachler, KJ Gergen 1–28 Brookfield, VT: Avebury/Ashgate
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Day DV. 2000. Leadership development: a review in context. Leadersh. Q. 11:581–614
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Day DV, Dragoni L. 2015. Leadership development: an outcome-oriented review based on time and levels of analyses. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2:133–56
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Day DV, Gronn P, Salas E. 2004. Leadership capacity in teams. Leadersh. Q. 15:857–80
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Day DV, Riggio RE, Tan SJ, Conger JA. 2021. Advancing the science of 21st-century leadership development: theory, research, and practice. Leadersh. Q. 32:101557
     [Google Scholar]
  33. DeRue DS. 2011. Adaptive leadership theory: leading and following as a complex adaptive process. Res. Organ. Behav. 31:125–50
     [Google Scholar]
  34. DeRue DS, Ashford SJ. 2010. Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations. Acad. Manag. Rev. 35:627–47
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Dinh JE, Lord RG, Gardner WL, Meuser JD, Liden RC, Hu J. 2014. Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: current theoretical trends and changing perspectives. Leadersh. Q. 25:36–62
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Driskell T, Salas E, Driskell JE. 2018. Teams in extreme environments: alterations in team development and teamwork. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 28:434–49
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Dulebohn JH, Bommer WH, Liden RC, Brouer RL, Ferris GR. 2012. A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader–member exchange. J. Manag. 38:1715–59
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Ely RJ, Ibarra H, Kolb DM. 2011. Taking gender into account: theory and design for women's leadership development programs. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 10:474–93
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Epitropaki O, Kark R, Mainemelis C, Lord RG. 2017. Leadership and followership identity processes: a multilevel review. Leadersh. Q. 28:104–29
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Epitropaki O, Martin R. 2005. From ideal to real: a longitudinal study of the role of implicit leadership theories on leader–member exchanges and employee outcomes. J. Appl. Psychol. 90:659–76
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Epitropaki O, Sy T, Martin R, Tram-Quon S, Topakas A. 2013. Implicit leadership and followership theories “in the wild”: taking stock of information-processing approaches to leadership and followership in organizational settings. Leadersh. Q. 24:858–81
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Felfe J, Schyns B. 2010. Followers’ personality and the perception of transformational leadership: further evidence for the similarity hypothesis. Br. J. Manag. 21:393–410
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Fischer T, Dietz J, Antonakis J. 2017. Leadership process models: a review and synthesis. J. Manag. 43:1726–53
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Fischer T, Sitkin SB. 2023. Leadership styles: a comprehensive assessment and way forward. Acad. Manag. Ann. 17:331–72
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Fleeson W. 2001. Toward a structure- and process-integrated view of personality: traits as density distributions of states. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 80:1011–27
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Fleishman EA 1973. Twenty years of consideration and structure. Current Developments in the Study of Leadership EA Fleishman, JG Hunt 1–37 Carbondale: South. Ill. Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Follett MP. 1949. Freedom and Coordination: Lectures in Business Organization London: Manag. Publ. Trust
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Galvin BM, Badura K, LePine J, LePine M. 2023. A theoretical integration of leader emergence and leadership effectiveness: over, under, and congruent emergence. J. Organ. Behav. In press. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2724
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  49. Gardner JW. 1990. On Leadership New York: Free
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Geys B, Connolly S, Kassim H, Murdoch Z. 2020. Follow the leader? Leader succession and staff attitudes in public sector organizations. Public Adm. Rev. 80:555–64
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Gottfredson RK, Wright SL, Heaphy ED. 2020. A critique of the leader–member exchange construct: back to square one. Leadersh. Q. 31:101385
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Graen GB, Scandura TA. 1987. Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. Res. Organ. Behav. 9:175–208
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Graen GB, Uhl-Bien M. 1995. Relationship-based approach to leadership. Development of leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadersh. Q. 6:219–47
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Greene JC. 2007. Mixed Methods in Social Inquiry San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Hackman JR, Wageman R. 2005. A theory of team coaching. Acad. Manag. Rev. 30:269–87
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Hackman JR, Walton RE. 1986. Leading groups and organizations. Designing Effective Work Groups PS Goodman 72–119 San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Hambrick DC, Mason PA. 1984. Upper echelons: the organization as a reflection of its top managers. Acad. Manag. Rev. 9:193–206
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Hanges PJ, Lord RG, Dickson MW. 2000. An information-processing perspective on leadership and culture: a case for connectionist architecture. Appl. Psychol. 49:133–61
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Hanna AA, Smith TA, Kirkman BL, Griffin RW. 2021. The emergence of emergent leadership: a comprehensive framework and directions for future research. J. Manag. 47:76–104
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Hannah ST, Woolfolk RL, Lord RG. 2009. Leader self-structure: a framework for positive leadership. J. Organ. Behav. 30:269–90
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Hayibor S, Agle BR, Sears GJ, Sonnenfeld JA, Ward A. 2011. Value congruence and charismatic leadership in CEO–top manager relationships: an empirical investigation. J. Bus. Ethics 102:237–54
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Heifetz RA. 1994. Leadership Without Easy Answers Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Heifetz RA, Linsky M. 2002a. Leadership on the Line: Staying Alive Through the Dangers of Leading Boston: Harvard Bus. Rev. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Heifetz RA, Linsky M. 2002b. A survival guide for leaders. Harvard Bus. Rev. 80:65–74
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Hoffman EL, Lord RG. 2013. A taxonomy of event-level dimensions: implications for understanding leadership processes, behavior, and performance. Leadersh. Q. 24:558–71
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Hogg MA. 2001. A social identity theory of leadership. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 5:184–200
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Holland JH. 1992. Complex adaptive systems. Daedalus 121:17–30
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Holland JH. 1995. Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity New York: Helix
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Hollander EP. 1958. Conformity, status, and idiosyncrasy credit. Psychol. Rev. 65:117–27
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Hollander EP. 1992. Leadership, followership, self, and others. Leadersh. Q. 3:43–54
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Homan AC, van Knippenberg D, Van Kleef GA, De Dreu CKW. 2007. Bridging faultlines by valuing diversity: diversity beliefs, information elaboration, and performance in diverse work groups. J. Appl. Psychol. 92:1189–99
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Howell JM, Shamir B. 2005. The role of followers in the charismatic leadership process: relationships and their consequences. Acad. Manag. Rev. 30:96–112
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Ilgen DR, Hollenbeck JR, Johnson M, Jundt D. 2005. Teams in organizations: from input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 56:517–43
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Joshi A, Roh H. 2009. The role of context in work team diversity research: a meta-analytic review. Acad. Manag. J. 52:599–627
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Judge TA, Bono JE, Ilies R, Gerhardt MW. 2002. Personality and leadership: a qualitative and quantitative review. J. Appl. Psychol. 87:765–80
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Keller T. 1999. Images of the familiar: individual differences and implicit leadership theories. Leadersh. Q. 10:589–607
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Keller T. 2003. Parental images as a guide to leadership sensemaking: an attachment perspective on implicit leadership theories. Leadersh. Q. 14:141–60
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Klein KJ, Dansereau F, Hall RJ. 1994. Levels issues in theory development, data collection and analysis. Acad. Manag. Rev. 19:195–229
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Konrad E 2000. Implicit leadership theories in Eastern and Western Europe. Soc. Sci. Inf. 39:335–47
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Kozlowski SWJ, Gully SM, Nason ER, Smith EM. 1999. Developing adaptive teams: a theory of compilation and performance across levels and time. The Changing Nature of Performance: Implications for Staffing, Motivation, and Development DR Ilgen, ED Pulakos 240–92 San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Kozlowski SWJ, Klein KJ 2000. A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: contextual, temporal, and emergent processes. Multilevel Theory, Research and Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions, and New Directions SWJ Kozlowski, KJ Klein 3–90 San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Lee SM, Farh CIC. 2019. Dynamic leadership emergence: differential impact of members’ and peers’ contributions in the idea generation and idea enactment phases of innovation project teams. J. Appl. Psychol. 104:411–32
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Levine J, Hogg M 2010. Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Lichtenstein B, Plowman DA. 2009. The leadership of emergence: a complex systems leadership theory of emergence at successive organizational levels. Leadersh. Q. 20:617–30
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Loignon AC, Kodydek G. 2022. The effects of objective and subjective social class on leadership emergence. J. Manag. Stud. 59:1162–97
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Lord RG, Brown DJ, Harvey JL, Hall RJ. 2001. Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multilevel consequences for leadership perceptions. Leadersh. Q. 12:311–38
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Lord RG, Dinh JE. 2012. Aggregation processes and levels of analysis as organizing structures for leadership theory. The Nature of Leadership DV Day, J Antonakis 29–65 Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Lord RG, Epitropaki O, Foti RJ, Hansbrough TK. 2020. Implicit leadership theories, implicit followership theories, and dynamic processing of leadership information. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 7:49–74
     [Google Scholar]
  89. Lord RG, Foti RJ, de Vader CL. 1984. A test of leadership categorization theory: internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 34:343–78
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Lord RG, Hall RJ. 2005. Identity, deep structure and the development of leadership skill. Leadersh. Q. 16:591–615
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Lord RG, Mayer KJ. 1991. Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Performance Cambridge, UK: Unwin Hyman
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Marchiondo LA, Myers CG, Kopelman S. 2015. The relational nature of leadership identity construction: how and when it influences perceived leadership and decision-making. Leadersh. Q. 26:892–908
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Marion R, Uhl-Bien M. 2001. Leadership in complex organizations. Leadersh. Q. 12:389–418
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Martin R, Guillaume Y, Thomas G, Lee A, Epitropaki O. 2016. Leader–member exchange (LMX) and performance: a meta-analytic review. Pers. Psychol. 69:67–121
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Mayo M, Pastor I. 2007. Leadership embedded in social networks: looking at inter-follower processes. Follower Centered Perspectives on Leadership: A Tribute to the Memory of James R. Meindl B Shamir, N Rajagopalan, MC Bligh, M Uhl-Bien 93–114 Greenwich, CT: Inf. Age
     [Google Scholar]
  96. McCrae RR, Costa PT Jr., Ostendorf F, Angleitner A, Hřebíčková M et al. 2000. Nature over nurture: temperament, personality, and life span development. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 78:173–86
     [Google Scholar]
  97. McFadden RD. 2002. John W. Gardner, 89, founder of Common Cause and advisor to presidents, dies. New York Times Febr. 18 B6
     [Google Scholar]
  98. McGrath JE. 1962. Leadership Behavior: Some Requirements for Leadership Training Washington, DC: US Civil Serv. Comm., Off. Career Dev.
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Mehra A, Smith BR, Dixon AL, Robertson B. 2006. Distributed leadership in teams: the network of leadership perceptions and team performance. Leadersh. Q. 17:232–45
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Meindl JR. 1990. On leadership: an alternative to the conventional wisdom. Res. Organ. Behav. 12:159–204
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Miscenko D, Guenter H, Day DV. 2017. Am I a leader? Examining leader identity development over time. Leadersh. Q. 28:605–20
     [Google Scholar]
  102. Morgeson FP, DeRue DS, Karam EP. 2010. Leadership in teams: a functional approach to understanding leadership structures and processes. J. Manag. 36:5–39
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Mumford MD, Antes AL, Caughron JJ, Friedrich TL. 2008. Charismatic, ideological, and pragmatic leadership: multi-level influences on emergence and performance. Leadersh. Q. 19:144–60
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Offermann LR, Kennedy JK, Wirtz PW. 1994. Implicit leadership theories: content, structure, and generalizability. Leadersh. Q. 5:43–58
     [Google Scholar]
  105. Offstein EH, Madhavan R, Gnyawali DR 2006. Pushing the frontier of LMX research: the contribution of triads. Sharing Network Leadership G Graen, JA Graen 95–117 Greenwich, CT: Inf. Age
     [Google Scholar]
  106. Ohly S, Sonnentag S, Niessen C, Zapf D. 2010. Diary studies in organizational research: an introduction and some practical recommendations. J. Pers. Psychol. 9:79–93
     [Google Scholar]
  107. Pirola-Merlo A, Hartel C, Mann L, Hirst G. 2002. How leaders influence the impact of affective events on team climate and performance in R&D teams. Leadersh. Q. 13:561–81
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Ployhart RE, Weekley JA, Baughman K. 2006. The structure and function of human capital emergence: a multilevel examination of the attraction-selection-attrition model. Acad. Manag. J. 49:661–77
     [Google Scholar]
  109. Rosette AS, Leonardelli GJ, Phillips KW. 2008. The white standard: racial bias in leader categorization. J. Appl. Psychol. 93:758–77
     [Google Scholar]
  110. Sang M, Golan O. 2022. Bureaucratic squires: a critical analysis of the construction of charismatic top-leaders. Leadership 18:427–45
     [Google Scholar]
  111. Schneider B. 1987. The people make the place. Pers. Psychol. 40:437–53
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Shamir B, House RJ, Arthur MB. 1993. The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: a self-concept based theory. Organ. Sci. 4:577–94
     [Google Scholar]
  113. Shamir B, Howell JM. 1999. Organizational and contextual influences on the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leadership. Leadersh. Q. 10:257–83
     [Google Scholar]
  114. Shen W. 2019. Personal and situational antecedents of workers’ implicit leadership theories: a within-person, between-jobs design. J. Leadersh. Organ. Stud. 26:204–16
     [Google Scholar]
  115. Sirén C, He VF, Wesemann H, Jonassen Z, Grichnik D, von Krogh G. 2020. Leader emergence in nascent venture teams: the critical roles of individual emotion regulation and team emotions. J. Manag. Stud. 57:931–61
     [Google Scholar]
  116. Snijders TAB, van de Bunt GG, Steglich CEG. 2010. Introduction to stochastic actor-based models for network dynamics. Soc. Netw. 32:44–60
     [Google Scholar]
  117. Steffens NK, Wolyniec N, Okimoto TG, Mols F, Haslam SA, Kay AA. 2021. Knowing me, knowing us: Personal and collective self-awareness enhances authentic leadership and leader endorsement. Leadersh. Q. 32:101498
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Tajfel H, Turner JC. 1986. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. Psychology of Intergroup Relations S Worchel, WG Austin 7–24 Chicago: Nelson-Hall
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Uhl-Bien M. 2006. Relational leadership theory: exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing. Leadersh. Q. 17:654–76
     [Google Scholar]
  120. Uhl-Bien M, Arena M. 2017. Complexity leadership: enabling people and organizations for adaptability. Organ. Dyn. 46:9–20
     [Google Scholar]
  121. Uhl-Bien M, Arena M. 2018. Leadership for organizational adaptability: a theoretical synthesis and integrative framework. Leadersh. Q. 29:89–104
     [Google Scholar]
  122. Uhl-Bien M, Marion R, McKelvey B. 2007. Complexity leadership theory: shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. Leadersh. Q. 18:298–318
     [Google Scholar]
  123. van Dick R, Lemoine JE, Steffens NK, Kerschreiter R, Akfirat SA et al. 2018. Identity leadership going global: validation of the identity leadership inventory across 20 countries. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 91:697–728
     [Google Scholar]
  124. van Knippenberg D. 2011. Embodying who we are: leader group prototypicality and leadership effectiveness. Leadersh. Q. 22:1078–91
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Verba S. 1961. Small Groups and Political Behavior Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  126. Weiss HM, Cropanzano R. 1996. Affective events theory: a theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Res. Organ. Behav. 18:1–74
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Wellman N, Newton DW, Wang D, Wei W, Waldman DA, LePine JA. 2019. Meeting the need or falling in line? The effect of laissez-faire formal leaders on informal leadership. Pers. Psychol. 72:337–59
     [Google Scholar]
  128. Whetten DA, Felin T, King BG. 2009. The practice of theory borrowing in organizational studies: current issues and future directions. J. Manag. 35:537–63
     [Google Scholar]
  129. Yin RK. 2018. Case Study Research: Design and Methods London: SAGE
     [Google Scholar]
  130. Yu A, Matta FK, Cornfield B. 2018. Is leader–member exchange differentiation beneficial or detrimental for group effectiveness? A meta-analytic investigation and theoretical integration. Acad. Manag. J. 61:1158–88
     [Google Scholar]
  131. Yuan Z, Sun UY, Effinger AL, Zhang J. 2023. Being on the same page matters: a meta-analytic investigation of leader–member exchange (LMX) agreement. J. Appl. Psychol. 108:1540–58
     [Google Scholar]
  132. Zhang Z, Waldman DA, Wang Z. 2012. A multilevel investigation of leader–member exchange, informal leader emergence, and individual and team performance. Pers. Psychol. 65:49–78
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-040430
Loading
Leadership Emergence: Answering the “How” and “Why” Questions by Considering Levels of Analysis and Form of Emergence
Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 11, 139 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-040430
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-040430
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-040430
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error