1932

Abstract

Exposure to toxic stress accelerates the wear and tear on children's developing bodies and leaves a lasting mark on adult health. Prior research has focused mainly on children exposed to extreme forms of adversity, such as maltreatment and extreme neglect. However, repeated exposure to less severe, but often chronic stressors is likely to play as large, if not larger, of a role in forecasting children's future mental and physical health. New tools from neuroscience, biology, epigenetics, and the social sciences are helping to isolate when and how the foundations for adult health are shaped by childhood experiences. We are now in the position to understand how adversity, in both extreme and more mundane forms, contributes to the adult health burden and to identify features in children's families and environments that can be strengthened to buffer the effects of toxic stressors. We are also positioned to develop and implement innovative approaches to child policy and practice that are rooted in an understanding of how exposure to toxic stressors can become biologically embedded. The stage is set for the creation of new interventions—on both grand and micro scales—to reduce previously intractable health disparities.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114447
2013-03-18
2024-11-04
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/34/1/annurev-publhealth-031912-114447.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114447&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aber JL, Bennett NG, Conley DC, Li J. 1.  1997. The effects of poverty on child health and development. Annu. Rev. Public Health 18:463–83 [Google Scholar]
  2. Almeida DM. 2.  2005. Resilience and vulnerability to daily stressors assessed via diary methods. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 14:64–68 [Google Scholar]
  3. Anda RF, Croft JB, Felitti VJ, Nordenberg D, Giles WH. 3.  et al. 1999. Adverse childhood experiences and smoking during adolescence and adulthood. JAMA 282:1652–58 [Google Scholar]
  4. Attar BK, Guerra NG, Tolan PH. 4.  1994. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events and adjustment in urban elementary-school children. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 23:391–400 [Google Scholar]
  5. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van Ijzendoorn MH. 5.  2011. Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-related genes: new evidence and a meta-analysis. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:39–52 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van Ijzendoorn MH, Pijlman FTA, Mesman J, Juffer F. 6.  2008. Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers' externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Dev. Psychol. 44:293–300 [Google Scholar]
  7. Belsky J, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van Ijzendoorn MH. 7.  2007. For better and for worse: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 16:300–4 [Google Scholar]
  8. Belsky J, Pluess M. 8.  2009. Beyond diathesis stress: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychol. Bull. 135:885–908 [Google Scholar]
  9. Bernard K, Butzin-Dozier Z, Rittenhouse J, Dozier M. 9.  2010. Cortisol production patterns in young children living with birth parents vs. children placed in foster care following involvement of Child Protective Services. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 164:438–43 [Google Scholar]
  10. Boivin M, Hertzman C. 10.  2012. Early Childhood Development: Adverse Experiences and Developmental Health. R. Soc. Can. – Can. Acad. Health Sci. Expert Panel (with R Barr, WT Boyce, A Fleming, H MacMillan, C Odgers, M Sokolowski, N Trocmé) Ottawa, ON: R. Soc. Can. https://rsc-src.ca/sites/default/files/pdf/ECD%20Report_0.pdf [Google Scholar]
  11. Bowes L, Maughan B, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Arseneault L. 11.  2010. Families promote emotional and behavioural resilience to bullying: evidence of an environmental effect. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 51:809–17 [Google Scholar]
  12. Boyce WT, Ellis BJ. 12.  2005. Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Dev. Psychopathol. 17:271–301 [Google Scholar]
  13. Bruce J, Fisher PA, Pears KC, Levine S. 13.  2009. Morning cortisol levels in preschool-aged foster children: differential effects of maltreatment type. Dev. Psychobiol. 51:14–23 [Google Scholar]
  14. Bush NR, Obradović J, Adler N, Boyce WT. 14.  2011. Kindergarten stressors and cumulative adrenocortical activation: the “first straws” of allostatic load?. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:1089–106 [Google Scholar]
  15. Carlson M, Earls F. 15.  2006. Psychological and neuroendocrinological sequelae of early social deprivation in institutionalized children in Romania. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 807:419–28 [Google Scholar]
  16. Carpenter LL, Shattuck TT, Tyrka AR, Geracioti TD, Price LH. 16.  2011. Effect of childhood physical abuse on cortisol stress response. Psychopharmacology 214:367–75 [Google Scholar]
  17. Caspi A, Bolger N, Eckenrode J. 17.  1987. Linking person and context in the daily stress process. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 52:184–95 [Google Scholar]
  18. 18. Cent. Dis. Control Prev. (CDC) 2012. Preventing Child Maltreatment Through the Promotion of Safe, Stable, and Nurturing Relationships Between Children and Caregivers Atlanta, GA: CDC. http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/CM_Strategic_Direction–Long-a.pdf [Google Scholar]
  19. Chapman DP, Whitfield CL, Felitti VJ, Dube SR, Edwards VJ, Anda RF. 19.  2004. Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood. J. Affect. Disord. 82:217–25 [Google Scholar]
  20. Cicchetti D, Garmezy N. 20.  1993. Prospects and promises in the study of resilience. Dev. Psychopathol. 5:497–502 [Google Scholar]
  21. Cicchetti D, Rizley R. 21.  2006. Developmental perspectives on the etiology, intergenerational transmission, and sequelae of child maltreatment. New Dir. Child Adolesc. Dev. 1981:31–55 [Google Scholar]
  22. Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA. 22.  2001. Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Dev. Psychopathol. 13:677–93 [Google Scholar]
  23. Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA, Toth SL. 23.  2006. Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions. Dev. Psychopathol. 18:623–49 [Google Scholar]
  24. Cicchetti D, Toth SL. 24.  2005. Child maltreatment. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 1:409–38 [Google Scholar]
  25. Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Chen E, Matthews KA. 25.  2010. Childhood socioeconomic status and adult health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:37–55 [Google Scholar]
  26. Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Doyle WJ, Miller GE, Frank E. 26.  et al. 2012. Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109:5995–99 [Google Scholar]
  27. Collishaw S, Dunn J, O'Connor TG, Golding J. 27.  Avon Longitud. Study of Parents and Child. Study Team. 2007. Maternal childhood abuse and offspring adjustment over time. Dev. Psychopathol. 19:367–83 [Google Scholar]
  28. Compas BE. 28.  1987. Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence. Psychol. Bull. 101:393–403 [Google Scholar]
  29. Compas BE. 29.  1987. Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 7:275–302 [Google Scholar]
  30. Compas BE, Connor-Smith JK, Saltzman H, Thomsen AH, Wadsworth ME. 30.  2001. Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychol. Bull. 127:87–127 [Google Scholar]
  31. Conger RD, Ge X, Elder GH Jr, Lorenz FO, Simons RL. 31.  1994. Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Dev. 65:541–61 [Google Scholar]
  32. Danese A, Moffitt TE, Harrington H, Milne BJ, Polanczyk G. 32.  et al. 2009. Adverse childhood experiences and adult risk factors for age-related disease: depression, inflammation, and clustering of metabolic risk markers. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 163:1135–43 [Google Scholar]
  33. Danese A, Pariante CM, Caspi A, Taylor A, Poulton R. 33.  2007. Childhood maltreatment predicts adult inflammation in a life-course study. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:1319–24 [Google Scholar]
  34. Del Giudice M, Ellis BJ, Shirtcliff EA. 34.  2011. The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35:1562–92 [Google Scholar]
  35. DeLongis A, Coyne JC, Dakof G, Folkman S, Lazarus RS. 35.  1982. Relationship of daily hassles, uplifts, and major life events to health status. Health Psychol. 1:119 [Google Scholar]
  36. Dodge KA, Bates JE, Pettit GS. 36.  1990. Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science 250:1678–83 [Google Scholar]
  37. Dong M, Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Dube SR, Williamson DF. 37.  et al. 2004. The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse Negl. 28:771–84 [Google Scholar]
  38. Drury S, Theall K, Gleason M, Smyke A, De Vivo I. 38.  et al. 2012. Telomere length and early severe social deprivation: linking early adversity and cellular aging. Mol. Psychiatry 17:719–27 [Google Scholar]
  39. Dube SR, Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Chapman DP, Williamson DF, Giles WH. 39.  2001. Childhood abuse, household dysfunction, and the risk of attempted suicide throughout the life span: findings from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. JAMA 286:3089–96 [Google Scholar]
  40. Dube SR, Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Edwards VJ, Croft JB. 40.  2002. Adverse childhood experiences and personal alcohol abuse as an adult. Addict. Behav. 27:713–25 [Google Scholar]
  41. Dube SR, Anda RF, Whitfield CL, Brown DW, Felitti V. 41.  et al. 2005. Long-term consequences of childhood sexual abuse by gender of victim. Am. J. Prev. Med. 28:430–38 [Google Scholar]
  42. Dube SR, Fairweather DL, Pearson WS, Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Croft JB. 42.  2009. Cumulative childhood stress and autoimmune diseases in adults. Psychosom. Med. 71:243–50 [Google Scholar]
  43. Dube SR, Felitti VJ, Dong M, Chapman DP, Giles WH, Anda RF. 43.  2003. Childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction and the risk of illicit drug use: the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Pediatrics 111:564–72 [Google Scholar]
  44. DuMont KA, Widom CS, Czaja SJ. 44.  2007. Predictors of resilience in abused and neglected children grown-up: the role of individual and neighborhood characteristics. Child Abuse Negl. 31:255–74 [Google Scholar]
  45. Edwards VJ, Holden GW, Felitti VJ, Anda RF. 45.  2003. Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: results from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Am. J. Psychiatry 160:1453–60 [Google Scholar]
  46. Elder GH Jr. 46.  1999 [1974]. Children of the Great Depression: Social Change in Life Experience Boulder, CO: Westview [Google Scholar]
  47. Elder GH Jr, Nguyen TV, Caspi A. 47.  1985. Linking family hardship to children's lives. Child Dev. 56:361–75 [Google Scholar]
  48. Entringer S, Epel ES, Kumsta R, Lin J, Hellhammer DH. 48.  et al. 2011. Stress exposure in intrauterine life is associated with shorter telomere length in young adulthood. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108:E513–18 [Google Scholar]
  49. Essex MJ, Boyce WT, Hertzman C, Lam LL, Armstrong JM. 49.  et al. 2011. Epigenetic vestiges of early developmental adversity: childhood stress exposure and DNA methylation in adolescence. Child Dev. doi: 10.1111/j.467-8624.2011.01641.x [Google Scholar]
  50. Evans GW. 50.  2004. The environment of childhood poverty. Am. Psychol. 59:77–92 [Google Scholar]
  51. Evans GW, Boxhill L, Pinkava M. 51.  2008. Poverty and maternal responsiveness: the role of maternal stress and social resources. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 32:232–37 [Google Scholar]
  52. Evans GW, Eckenrode J, Marcynyszyn LA. 52.  2009. Chaos and the macrosetting: the role of poverty and socioeconomic status. Chaos and Its Influence on Children's Development. An Ecological Perspective GW Evans, TD Wachs 225–38 Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc. [Google Scholar]
  53. Evans GW, English K. 53.  2002. The environment of poverty: multiple stressor exposure, psychophysiological stress, and socioemotional adjustment. Child Dev. 73:1238–48 [Google Scholar]
  54. Evans GW, Kim P, Ting AH, Tesher HB, Shannis D. 54.  2007. Cumulative risk, maternal responsiveness, and allostatic load among young adolescents. Dev. Psychol. 43:341–51 [Google Scholar]
  55. Evans GW, Vermeylen FM, Barash A, Lefkowitz EG, Hutt RL. 55.  2009. The experience of stressors and hassles among rural adolescents from low- and middle-income households in the USA. Child. Youth Environ. 19:1546–2250 [Google Scholar]
  56. Ezzell CE, Swenson CC, Brondino MJ. 56.  2000. The relationship of social support to physically abused children's adjustment. Child Abuse Neglect 24:641–51 [Google Scholar]
  57. Fagundes CP, Bennett JM, Derry HM, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. 57.  2011. Relationships and inflammation across the lifespan: social developmental pathways to disease. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 5:891–903 [Google Scholar]
  58. Fagundes CP, Glaser R, Johnson SL, Andridge RR, Yang EV. 58.  et al. 2012. Basal cell carcinoma: stressful life events and the tumor environment. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 69:618–26 [Google Scholar]
  59. Fagundes CP, Glaser R, Malarkey WB, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. 59.  2012. Childhood adversity and herpesvirus latency in breast cancer survivors. Health Psychol. doi: 10.1037/a0028595 [Google Scholar]
  60. Feiring C, Taska L, Lewis M. 60.  2002. Adjustment following sexual abuse discovery: the role of shame and attributional style. Dev. Psychol. 38:79–92 [Google Scholar]
  61. Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Spitz AM. 61.  et al. 1998. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. Am. J. Prev. Med. 14:245–58 [Google Scholar]
  62. Fisher PA, Kim HK, Bruce J, Pears KC. 62.  2012. Cumulative effects of prenatal substance exposure and early adversity on foster children's HPA-axis reactivity during a psychosocial stressor. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 36:29–35 [Google Scholar]
  63. Flaherty EG, Thompson R, Litrownik AJ, Theodore A, English DJ. 63.  et al. 2006. Effect of early childhood adversity on child health. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 160:1232–38 [Google Scholar]
  64. Foster EM. 64.  2010. Causal inference and developmental psychology. Dev. Psychol. 46:1454–80 [Google Scholar]
  65. Garmezy N, Masten AS, Tellegen A. 65.  1984. The study of stress and competence in children: a building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Dev. 55:97–111 [Google Scholar]
  66. Gerard JM, Buehler C. 66.  2004. Cumulative environmental risk and youth maladjustment: the role of youth attributes. Child Dev. 75:1832–49 [Google Scholar]
  67. Gilbert R, Widom CS, Browne K, Fergusson D, Webb E, Janson S. 67.  2009. Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet 373:68–81 [Google Scholar]
  68. Grant KE, Compas BE, Stuhlmacher AF, Thurm AE, McMahon SD, Halpert JA. 68.  2003. Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: moving from markers to mechanisms of risk. Psychol. Bull. 129:447–66 [Google Scholar]
  69. Green JG, McLaughlin KA, Berglund PA, Gruber MJ, Sampson NA. 69.  et al. 2010. Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication I: associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 67:113–23 [Google Scholar]
  70. Gunnar MR, Frenn K, Wewerka SS, Van Ryzin MJ. 70.  2009. Moderate versus severe early life stress: associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10–12-year-old children. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34:62–75 [Google Scholar]
  71. Gunnar MR, Morison SJ, Chisholm K, Schuder M. 71.  2001. Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Dev. Psychopathol. 13:611–28 [Google Scholar]
  72. Gunnar MR, Vazquez D. 72.  2006. Stress neurobiology and developmental psychopathology. Developmental Psychopathology 2 Developmental Neuroscience D Cicchetti, DJ Cohen 533–77 New York: Wiley, 2nd ed.. [Google Scholar]
  73. Gunnar MR, Vazquez DM. 73.  2001. Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: potential indices of risk in human development. Dev. Psychopathol. 13:515–38 [Google Scholar]
  74. Gustafsson PE, Anckarsäter H, Lichtenstein P, Nelson N, Gustafsson PA. 74.  2010. Does quantity have a quality all its own? Cumulative adversity and up- and down-regulation of circadian salivary cortisol levels in healthy children. Psychoneuroendocrinology 35:1410–15 [Google Scholar]
  75. Hart B, Risley TR. 75.  1995. Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes [Google Scholar]
  76. Hart B, Risley TR. 76.  2003. The early catastrophe: the 30 million word gap by age 3. Am. Educ. 27:4–9 [Google Scholar]
  77. Heim C, Newport DJ, Bonsall R, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB. 77.  2001. Altered pituitary-adrenal axis responses to provocative challenge tests in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Am. J. Psychiatry 158:575–81 [Google Scholar]
  78. Heim C, Newport DJ, Heit S, Graham YP, Wilcox M. 78.  et al. 2000. Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. JAMA 284:592–97 [Google Scholar]
  79. Herrenkohl EC, Herrenkohl RC, Egolf B. 79.  2010. Resilient early school age children from maltreating homes: outcomes in late adolescence. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 64:301–9 [Google Scholar]
  80. Hertzman C. 80.  1999. The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 896:85–95 [Google Scholar]
  81. Hertzman C, Boyce T. 81.  2010. How experience gets under the skin to create gradients in developmental health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 31:329–47 [Google Scholar]
  82. Hussey JM, Chang JJ, Kotch JB. 82.  2006. Child maltreatment in the United States: prevalence, risk factors, and adolescent health consequences. Pediatrics 118:933–42 [Google Scholar]
  83. Jaffee SR. 83.  2007. Sensitive, stimulating caregiving predicts cognitive and behavioral resilience in neurodevelopmentally at-risk infants. Dev. Psychopathol. 19:631–47 [Google Scholar]
  84. Jaffee SR, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Polo-Tomas M, Taylor A. 84.  2007. Individual, family, and neighborhood factors distinguish resilient from non-resilient maltreated children: a cumulative stressors model. Child Abuse Negl. 31:231–53 [Google Scholar]
  85. Jaffee SR, Maikovich-Fong AK. 85.  2010. Effects of chronic maltreatment and maltreatment timing on children's behavior and cognitive abilities. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 52:184–94 [Google Scholar]
  86. Jaffee SR, Strait LB, Odgers CL. 86.  2011. From correlates to causes: Can quasi-experimental studies and statistical innovations bring us closer to identifying the causes of antisocial behavior?. Psychol. Bull. 138:272–95 [Google Scholar]
  87. Jin W, Joyce R, Phillips D, Sibieta L. 87.  2010. Poverty and Inequality in the UK: 2011 IFS Comment. C118. London: Inst. Fiscal Stud. http://www.ifs.org.uk/comms/comm118.pdf [Google Scholar]
  88. Kanner AD, Coyne JC, Schaefer C, Lazarus RS. 88.  1981. Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events. J. Behav. Med. 4:1–39 [Google Scholar]
  89. Kaufman J, Yang BZ, Douglas-Palumberi H, Houshyar S, Lipschitz D. 89.  et al. 2004. Social supports and serotonin transporter gene moderate depression in maltreated children. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:17316–21 [Google Scholar]
  90. Kishiyama MM, Boyce WT, Jimenez AM, Perry LM, Knight RT. 90.  2009. Socioeconomic disparities affect prefrontal function in children. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 21:1106–15 [Google Scholar]
  91. Lazarus RS. 91.  1984. Puzzles in the study of daily hassles. J. Behav. Med. 7:375–89 [Google Scholar]
  92. Lazarus RS, DeLongis A, Folkman S, Gruen R. 92.  1985. Stress and adaptational outcomes: the problem of confounded measures. Am. Psychol. 40:770–85 [Google Scholar]
  93. Lupien S, King S, Meaney MJ, McEwen BS. 93.  2001. Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Dev. Psychopathol. 13:653–76 [Google Scholar]
  94. Luthar SS. 94.  1991. Vulnerability and resilience: a study of high-risk adolescents. Child Dev. 62:600–16 [Google Scholar]
  95. Luthar SS, Cicchetti D, Becker B. 95.  2003. The construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Dev. 71:543–62 [Google Scholar]
  96. MacMillan HL, Georgiades K, Duku EK, Shea A, Steiner M. 96.  et al. 2009. Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: results of the Youth Mood Project. Biol. Psychiatry 66:62–68 [Google Scholar]
  97. Masten AS. 97.  2001. Ordinary magic: resilience processes in development. Am. Psychol. 56:227–38 [Google Scholar]
  98. Masten AS. 98.  2007. Resilience in developing systems: progress and promise as the fourth wave rises. Dev. Psychopathol. 19:921–30 [Google Scholar]
  99. Masten AS. 99.  2011. Resilience in children threatened by extreme adversity: frameworks for research, practice, and translational synergy. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:493–506 [Google Scholar]
  100. Masten AS, Tellegen A. 100.  2012. Resilience in developmental psychopathology: contributions of the Project Competence Longitudinal Study. Dev. Psychopathol. 24:345–61 [Google Scholar]
  101. McEwen BS. 101.  2000. Allostasis and allostatic load: implications for neuropsychopharmacology. Neuropsychopharmacology 22:108–24 [Google Scholar]
  102. Miller G, Chen E, Cole SW. 102.  2009. Health psychology: developing biologically plausible models linking the social world and physical health. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60:501–24 [Google Scholar]
  103. Miller GE, Chen E, Fok AK, Walker H, Lim A. 103.  et al. 2009. Low early-life social class leaves a biological residue manifested by decreased glucocorticoid and increased proinflammatory signaling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106:14716–21 [Google Scholar]
  104. Miller GE, Chen E, Parker KJ. 104.  2011. Psychological stress in childhood and susceptibility to the chronic diseases of aging: moving toward a model of behavioral and biological mechanisms. Psychol. Bull. 137:959–97 [Google Scholar]
  105. Monroe SM, Simons AD. 105.  1991. Diathesis-stress theories in the context of life stress research: implications for the depressive disorders. Psychol. Bull. 110:406–25 [Google Scholar]
  106. Moran PB, Eckenrode J. 106.  1992. Protective personality characteristics among adolescent victims of maltreatment. Child Abuse Negl. 16:743–54 [Google Scholar]
  107. Obradovic J, Bush NR, Stamperdahl J, Adler NE, Boyce WT. 107.  2010. Biological sensitivity to context: the interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Dev. 81:270–89 [Google Scholar]
  108. Ouellet-Morin I, Danese A, Bowes L, Shakoor S, Ambler A. 108.  et al. 2011. A discordant monozygotic twin design shows blunted cortisol reactivity among bullied children. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 50:574–82 [Google Scholar]
  109. Ouellet-Morin I, Odgers CL, Danese A, Bowes L, Shakoor S. 109.  et al. 2011. Blunted cortisol responses to stress signal social and behavioral problems among maltreated/bullied 12-year-old children. Biol. Psychiatry 70:1016–23 [Google Scholar]
  110. Parker KJ, Buckmaster CL, Lindley SE, Schatzberg AF, Lyons DM. 110.  2012. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis physiology and cognitive control of behavior in stress inoculated monkeys. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 36:45–52 [Google Scholar]
  111. Parker KJ, Rainwater KL, Buckmaster CL, Schatzberg AF, Lindley SE, Lyons DM. 111.  2007. Early life stress and novelty seeking behavior in adolescent monkeys. Psychoneuroendocrinology 32:785–92 [Google Scholar]
  112. Patterson GR. 112.  1983. Stress: a change agent for family process. Stress, Coping, and Development in Children N Garmezy, M Rutter 235–64 New York: McGraw-Hill [Google Scholar]
  113. Repetti RL, Taylor SE, Seeman TE. 113.  2002. Risky families: family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychol. Bull. 128:330–66 [Google Scholar]
  114. Repetti RL, Wood J. 114.  1997. Effects of daily stress at work on mothers' interactions with preschoolers. J. Fam. Psychol. 11:90–108 [Google Scholar]
  115. Rutter M. 115.  1979. Protective factors in children's responses to stress and disadvantage. Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 8:324–38 [Google Scholar]
  116. Rutter M. 116.  1998. Developmental catch-up, and deficit, following adoption after severe global early privation: English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 39:465–76 [Google Scholar]
  117. Salazar AM, Keller TE, Courtney ME. 117.  2011. Understanding social support's role in the relationship between maltreatment and depression in youth with foster care experience. Child Maltreat. 16:102–13 [Google Scholar]
  118. Sameroff AJ. 118.  1983. Developmental systems: contexts and evolution. Handbook of Child Psychology 1 P Mussen 237–94 New York: Wiley [Google Scholar]
  119. Sameroff AJ, Bartko WT, Baldwin A, Baldwin C, Seifer R. 119.  1998. Family and social influences on the development of child competence. Families, Risk, and Competence M Lewis, C Feiring 161–85 Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum [Google Scholar]
  120. Sameroff AJ, Chandler MJ. 120.  1975. Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. Review of Child Development Research 4187–244 Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  121. Saxbe DE, Margolin G, Spies Shapiro LA, Baucom BR. 121.  2012. Does dampened physiological reactivity protect youth in aggressive family environments?. Child Dev. 83:821–30 [Google Scholar]
  122. Shalev I, Moffitt T, Sugden K, Williams B, Houts R. 122.  et al. 2012. Exposure to violence during childhood is associated with telomere erosion from 5 to 10 years of age: a longitudinal study. Mol. Psychiatry doi: 10.1038/mp.2012.32 [Google Scholar]
  123. Shiffman S, Stone AA, Hufford MR. 123.  2008. Ecological momentary assessment. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 4:1–32 [Google Scholar]
  124. Shonkoff JP. 124.  2010. Building a new biodevelopmental framework to guide the future of early childhood policy. Child Dev. 81:357–67 [Google Scholar]
  125. Shonkoff JP. 125.  2011. Protecting brains, not simply stimulating minds. Science 333:982–83 [Google Scholar]
  126. Shonkoff JP. 126.  2012. Leveraging the biology of adversity to address the roots of disparities in health and development. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109:Suppl. 217302–7 [Google Scholar]
  127. Shonkoff JP, Boyce WT, McEwen BS. 127.  2009. Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. JAMA 301:2252–59 [Google Scholar]
  128. Shonkoff JP, Garner AS, Siegel BS, Dobbins MI, Earls MF. 128.  et al. 2012. The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics 129:e232–46 [Google Scholar]
  129. Shonkoff JP, Philips DA. 129.  2000. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press [Google Scholar]
  130. Taylor SE, Way BM, Seeman TE. 130.  2011. Early adversity and adult health outcomes. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:939–54 [Google Scholar]
  131. Thornberry TP, Henry KL, Ireland TO, Smith CA. 131.  2010. The causal impact of childhood-limited maltreatment and adolescent maltreatment on early adult adjustment. J. Adolesc. Health 46:359–65 [Google Scholar]
  132. Tough P. 132.  2011. The Poverty Clinic: Can a stressful childhood make you a sick adult?. New Yorker Mag. March 21:25–32 [Google Scholar]
  133. Whitfield CL, Anda RF, Dube SR, Felitti VJ. 133.  2003. Violent childhood experiences and the risk of intimate partner violence in adults: assessment in a large health maintenance organization. J. Interpers. Violence 18:166–85 [Google Scholar]
  134. Widom CS, Czaja SJ, Bentley T, Johnson MS. 134.  2012. A prospective investigation of physical health outcomes in abused and neglected children: new findings from a 30-year follow-up. Am. J. Public Health 102:1135–44 [Google Scholar]
  135. Widom CS, DuMont K, Czaja SJ. 135.  2007. A prospective investigation of major depressive disorder and comorbidity in abused and neglected children grown up. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64:49–56 [Google Scholar]
  136. Wight VR, Chau M, Aratani Y. 136.  2010. Who Are America's Poor Children?: The Official Story New York: Natl. Cent. Child. Poverty (NCCP). http://www.nccp.org/publications/pdf/text_912.pdf [Google Scholar]
  137. Zuckerman M. 137.  1999. Vulnerability to Psychopathology: A Biosocial Model Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc., 1st ed.535 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114447
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error