1932

Abstract

In the United States, awareness is increasing that medical care alone cannot adequately improve health overall or reduce health disparities without also addressing where and how people live. A critical mass of relevant knowledge has accumulated, documenting associations, exploring pathways and biological mechanisms, and providing a previously unavailable scientific foundation for appreciating the role of social factors in health. We review current knowledge about health effects of social (including economic) factors, knowledge gaps, and research priorities, focusing on upstream social determinants—including economic resources, education, and racial discrimination—that fundamentally shape the downstream determinants, such as behaviors, targeted by most interventions. Research priorities include measuring social factors better, monitoring social factors and health relative to policies, examining health effects of social factors across lifetimes and generations, incrementally elucidating pathways through knowledge linkage, testing multidimensional interventions, and addressing political will as a key barrier to translating knowledge into action.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031210-101218
2011-04-21
2024-12-05
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/32/1/annurev-publhealth-031210-101218.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031210-101218&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Adler N, Stewart J. 1.  2010. The biology of disadvantage: socioeconomic status and health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:1–275A collection of several papers, each reviewing a different aspect of knowledge on the social determinants of health. [Google Scholar]
  2. Avendano M, Glymour MM. 2.  2008. Stroke disparities in older Americans: Is wealth a more powerful indicator of risk than income and education?. Stroke 39:1533–40 [Google Scholar]
  3. Barbeau E, Krieger N, Soobader MJ. 3.  2004. Working class matters: socioeconomic disadvantage, race/ethnicity, gender, and smoking in NHIS 2000. Am. J. Public Health 94:269–78 [Google Scholar]
  4. Bartley M, Plewis I. 4.  2002. Accumulated labour market disadvantage and limiting long-term illness: data from the 1971–1991 Office for National Statistics' Longitudinal Study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 31:336–41 [Google Scholar]
  5. Berkman LF, Glass T. 5.  2000. Social integration, social networks, social support, and health. Social Epidemiology LF Berkman, I Kawachi 137–73 New York: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  6. Booth KM, Pinkston MM, Poston WS. 6.  2005. Obesity and the built environment. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 105:S110–17 [Google Scholar]
  7. Bradley RH, Corwyn RF. 7.  2002. Socioeconomic status and child development. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53:371–99 [Google Scholar]
  8. Braveman P. 8.  2006. Health disparities and health equity: concepts and measurement. Annu. Rev. Public Health 27:167–94 [Google Scholar]
  9. Braveman P, Barclay C. 9.  2009. Health disparities beginning in childhood: a life-course perspective. Pediatrics 124:Suppl. 3S163–75 [Google Scholar]
  10. Braveman P, Egerter S, Mockenhaupt R. 10.  2010a. Broadening the focus: the need to address the social determinants of health. Am. J. Prev. Med. In press [Google Scholar]
  11. Braveman P, Egerter S, Woolf SH, Marks JS. 11.  2010b. Do we know enough to recommend action on the social determinants of health?. Am. J. Prev. Med. In press [Google Scholar]
  12. Braveman P, Marchi K, Egerter S, Kim S, Metzler M. 12.  et al. 2010. Poverty, near-poverty, and hardship around the time of pregnancy. Matern. Child Health J. 14:20–35 [Google Scholar]
  13. Braveman PA, Cubbin C, Egerter S, Chideya S, Marchi KS. 13.  et al. 2005. Socioeconomic status in health research: One size does not fit all. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 294:2879–88 [Google Scholar]
  14. Braveman PA, Cubbin C, Egerter S, Williams DR, Pamuk E. 14.  2010. Socioeconomic disparities in health in the United States: what the patterns tell us. Am. J. Public Health 14:20–35 [Google Scholar]
  15. Brennan-Ramirez LK, Baker EA, Metzler M. 15.  2008. Promoting Health Equity: A Resource to Help Communities Address Social Determinants of Health Atlanta, GA: U.S. Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Cent. Dis. Control Prev. [Google Scholar]
  16. 16. Business Roundtable 2003. Early childhood education: a call to action from the business community http://www.businessroundtable.org/sites/default/files/2003.05.05%20Early%20Childhood%20Education-A%20Call%20to%20Action%20from%20the%20Business%20Community.pdf [Google Scholar]
  17. 17. Calif. Newsreel 2008. Unnatural causes: Is inequality making us sick? http://www.unnaturalcauses.org [Google Scholar]
  18. Campbell FA, Ramey CT, Pungello EP, Sparling J, Miller-Johnson S. 18.  2002. Early childhood education: young adult outcomes from the Abecedarian Project. Appl. Dev. Sci. 6:42–57 [Google Scholar]
  19. Campbell KE, Marsden PV, Hurlbert JS. 19.  1986. Social resources and socioeconomic status. Soc. Netw. 8:97–117 [Google Scholar]
  20. Caruso CC, Hitchcock EM, Dick RB, Russo JM, Schmit JM. 20.  2004. Overtime and Extended Work Shifts: Recent Findings on Illnesses, Injuries, and Health Behaviors Rep. 2004–143 Washington, DC: Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Natl. Inst. Occup. Saf. Health http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2004-143/pdfs/2004-143.pdf [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. Cent. Dis. Control Prev 2010. Community Health and Programs Sevices (CHAPS). CDC health disparities and social determinants of health resources http://www.cdc.gov/NCCDPHP/DACH/chaps/library/health_disparities.htm [Google Scholar]
  22. Charles CZ. 22.  2003. The dynamics of racial residential segregation. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 29:167–207 [Google Scholar]
  23. Chuang YC, Cubbin C, Ahn D, Winkleby MA. 23.  2005. Effects of neighbourhood socioeconomic status and convenience store concentration on individual level smoking. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 59:568–73 [Google Scholar]
  24. Cohen S, Gottlieb B, Underwood L. 24.  2000. Social relationships and health. Measuring and Intervening in Social Support S Cohen, L Underwood, B Gottlieb 3–25 New York: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  25. Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Chen E, Matthews KA. 25.  2010. Childhood socioeconomic status and adult health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:37–55 [Google Scholar]
  26. Collins JW Jr, David RJ, Rankin KM, Desireddi JR. 26.  2009. Transgenerational effect of neighborhood poverty on low birth weight among African Americans in Cook County, Illinois. Am. J. Epidemiol. 169:712–17 [Google Scholar]
  27. Collins SR, Davis K, Doty MM, Ho A. 27.  2004. Wages, Health Benefits, and Workers' Health New York: Commonwealth Fund [Google Scholar]
  28. 28. Comm. Econ. Dev. 2009. Early education working papers http://www.ced.org/issues/education/early-care-and-education/early-education [Google Scholar]
  29. 29. Consort. Soc. Sci. Assoc. 2000. NIH conference highlights importance of social and behavioral influences on health http://www.cossa.org/NIH/nihsocioculturalconference.html [Google Scholar]
  30. Crissey SR. 30.  2009. Educational attainment in the United States: 2007. Current Population Reports. Rep. P20–560 U.S. Census Bur. http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p20-560.pdf [Google Scholar]
  31. Cutler D, Lleras-Muney A. 31.  2006. Education and Health: Evaluating Theories and Evidence Bethesda, MD: Natl. Bur. Econ. Res. [Google Scholar]
  32. Cutrona CE, Russell DW, Hessling RM, Brown PA, Murry V. 32.  2000. Direct and moderating effects of community context on the psychological well-being of African American women. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 79:1088–101 [Google Scholar]
  33. Daly MC, Duncan GJ, McDonough P, Williams DR. 33.  2002. Optimal indicators of socioeconomic status for health research. Am. J. Public Health 92:1151–57 [Google Scholar]
  34. de Jonge J, Bosma H, Peter R, Siegrist J. 34.  2000. Job strain, effort-reward imbalance and employee well-being: a large-scale cross-sectional study. Soc. Sci. Med. 50:1317–27 [Google Scholar]
  35. Demakakos P, Nazroo J, Breeze E, Marmot M. 35.  2008. Socioeconomic status and health: the role of subjective social status. Soc. Sci. Med. 67:330–40 [Google Scholar]
  36. Dewalt DA, Berkman ND, Sheridan S, Lohr KN, Pignone MP. 36.  2004. Literacy and health outcomes: a systematic review of the literature. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 19:1228–39 [Google Scholar]
  37. Diez Roux AV, Mair C. 37.  2010. Neighborhoods and health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:125–45 [Google Scholar]
  38. Egerter S, Dekker M, An J, Grossman-Kahn R, Braveman P. 38.  2008. Issue Brief 4: Work Matters for Health Princeton, NJ: Robert Wood Johnson Found. [Google Scholar]
  39. Evans GW. 39.  2004. The environment of childhood poverty. Am. Psychol. 59:77–92 [Google Scholar]
  40. Evans GW, Kim P. 40.  2007. Childhood poverty and health: cumulative risk exposure and stress dysregulation. Psychol. Sci. 18:953–57 [Google Scholar]
  41. Evans RG. 41.  2008. Thomas McKeown, meet Fidel Castro: physicians, population health and the Cuban paradox. Healthc. Policy 3:21–32 [Google Scholar]
  42. Fergus S, Zimmerman MA. 42.  2005. Adolescent resilience: a framework for understanding healthy development in the face of risk. Annu. Rev. Public Health 26:399–419 [Google Scholar]
  43. Fernandez RM. 43.  2004. Space in the study of labor markets. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 30:545–69 [Google Scholar]
  44. Gabel J, Levitt L, Holve E, Pickreign J, Whitemore H. 44.  et al. 2002. Job-based health benefits in 2002: some important trends. Health Aff. 21:5143–51 [Google Scholar]
  45. Galobardes B, Lynch JW, Smith GD. 45.  2008. Is the association between childhood socioeconomic circumstances and cause-specific mortality established? Update of a systematic review. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 62:387–90 [Google Scholar]
  46. Galobardes B, Smith GD, Lynch JW. 46.  2006. Systematic review of the influence of childhood socioeconomic circumstances on risk for cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Ann. Epidemiol. 16:91–104 [Google Scholar]
  47. Garces E, Thomas D, Currie J. 47.  2002. Longer-term effects of Head Start. Am. Econ. Rev. 92:999–1012 [Google Scholar]
  48. Giles-Corti B, Donovan RJ. 48.  2002. The relative influence of individual, social and physical environment determinants of physical activity. Soc. Sci. Med. 54:1793–812 [Google Scholar]
  49. Gordon-Larsen P, Nelson MC, Page P, Popkin BM. 49.  2006. Inequality in the built environment underlies key health disparities in physical activity and obesity. Pediatrics 117:417–24 [Google Scholar]
  50. Guo G, Harris KM. 50.  2000. The mechanisms mediating the effects of poverty on children's intellectual development. Demography 37:431–47 [Google Scholar]
  51. Heinrich KM, Lee RE, Suminski RR, Regan GR, Reese-Smith JY. 51.  et al. 2007. Associations between the built environment and physical activity in public housing residents. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 4:56 [Google Scholar]
  52. Herd P, Goesling B, House JS. 52.  2007. Socioeconomic position and health: the differential effects of education versus income on the onset versus progression of health problems. J. Health Soc. Behav. 48:223–38 [Google Scholar]
  53. Hertzman C. 53.  1999. The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 896:85–95 [Google Scholar]
  54. Heymann J, Boynton-Jarrett R, Carter P, Bond JT, Galinsky E. 54.  2002. Work-Family Issues and Low-Income Families New York: Ford Found. [Google Scholar]
  55. 55. Inst. Med. 2000. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press [Google Scholar]
  56. Karasek RA, Theorell T. 56.  1990. Healthy Work: Stress, Productivity and the Reconstruction of Working Life New York: Basic Books [Google Scholar]
  57. Karoly LA, Kilburn MR, Cannon JS. 57.  2005. Early childhood interventions: proven results, future promise. Rep. MG-341 RAND Corp., Santa Monica, Calif. [Google Scholar]
  58. Kawachi I, Adler NE, Dow WH. 58.  2010. Money, schooling, and health: mechanisms and causal evidence. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:56–68 [Google Scholar]
  59. Kawachi I, Kennedy BP. 59.  1997. Health and social cohesion: why care about income inequality?. BMJ 314:1037–40 [Google Scholar]
  60. Kuper H, Singh-Manoux A, Siegrist J, Marmot M. 60.  2002. When reciprocity fails: effort-reward imbalance in relation to coronary heart disease and health functioning within the Whitehall II study. Occup. Environ. Med. 59:777–84 [Google Scholar]
  61. Kuzawa CW, Sweet E. 61.  2009. Epigenetics and the embodiment of race: developmental origins of US racial disparities in cardiovascular health. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 21:2–15 [Google Scholar]
  62. Larson K, Halfon N. 62.  2009. Family income gradients in the health and health care access of US children. Matern. Child Health J. 4:3332–42 [Google Scholar]
  63. Leganger A, Kraft P. 63.  2003. Control constructs: Do they mediate the relation between educational attainment and health behavior?. J. Health Psychol. 8:361–72 [Google Scholar]
  64. Lynch J, Davey Smith G. 64.  2005. A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology. Annu. Rev. Public Health 26:1–35 [Google Scholar]
  65. Lynch J, Davey Smith G, Harper S, Hillemeier M. 65.  2004. Is income inequality a determinant of population health? Part 2. U.S. National and regional trends in income inequality and age- and cause-specific mortality. Milbank Q. 82:355–400 [Google Scholar]
  66. Mackenbach JP, Howden-Chapman P. 66.  2003. New perspectives on socioeconomic inequalities in health. Perspect. Biol. Med. 46:428–44 [Google Scholar]
  67. Marmot M. 67.  1999. Epidemiology of socioeconomic status and health: Are determinants within countries the same as between countries?. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 896:16–29 [Google Scholar]
  68. Marmot M, Bosma H, Hemingway H, Brunner E, Stansfeld S. 68.  1997. Contribution of job control and other risk factors to social variations in coronary heart disease incidence. Lancet 350:235–39 [Google Scholar]
  69. Marmot MG, Davey Smith G, Stansfeld S, Patel C, North F. 69.  et al. 1991. Health inequalities among British civil servants: the Whitehall II study. Lancet 337:1387–93 [Google Scholar]
  70. McEwen BS. 70.  2006. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: central role of the brain. Dial. Clin. Neurosci. 8:367–81 [Google Scholar]
  71. McEwen BS, Gianaros PJ. 71.  2010. Central role of the brain in stress and adaptation: links to socioeconomic status, health, and disease. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:190–222 [Google Scholar]
  72. Mickelson KD, Kubzansky LD. 72.  2003. Social distribution of social support: the mediating role of life events. Am. J. Commun. Psychol. 32:265–81 [Google Scholar]
  73. Minkler M, Fuller-Thomson E, Guralnik JM. 73.  2006. Gradient of disability across the socioeconomic spectrum in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 355:695–703 [Google Scholar]
  74. Mirowsky J, Ross C. 74.  1998. Education, personal control, lifestyle, and health. A human capital hypothesis. Res. Aging 20:415–49 [Google Scholar]
  75. Mirowsky J, Ross C. 75.  2003. Education, Social Status, and Health New York: Aldine de Gruyter [Google Scholar]
  76. Morenoff JD, Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW. 76.  2001. Neighborhood inequality, collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of urban violence. Criminology 39:517–58 [Google Scholar]
  77. Morland K, Diez Roux AV, Wing S. 77.  2006. Supermarkets, other food stores, and obesity: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am. J. Prev. Med. 30:333–39 [Google Scholar]
  78. Muennig P. 78.  2008. Health selection versus causation in the income gradient: What can we learn from graphical trends?. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 19:574–79 [Google Scholar]
  79. 79. Natl. Assoc. County City Health Off. 2010. 2010. Health equity and social justice http://www.naccho.org/topics/justice [Google Scholar]
  80. Nuru-Jeter A, Dominguez TP, Hammond WP, Leu J, Skaff M. 80.  et al. 2009. “It's the skin you're in”: African-American women talk about their experiences of racism. An exploratory study to develop measures of racism for birth outcome studies. Matern. Child Health J. 13:29–39 [Google Scholar]
  81. O'Neil BA, Forsythe ME, Stanish WD. 81.  2001. Chronic occupational repetitive strain injury. Can. Fam. Phys. 47:311–16 [Google Scholar]
  82. Pamuk E, Makuc D, Keck K, Reuban C, Lochner K. 82.  1998. Socioeconomic Status and Health Chartbook. Health, United States, 1998 Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Cent. Health Stat. [Google Scholar]
  83. Pastor JM. 83.  2001. Geography and opportunity. America Becoming: Racial Trends and Their Consequences Natl. Res. Counc., NJ Smelser, WJ Wilson 435–68 Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press [Google Scholar]
  84. Phongsavan P, Chey T, Bauman A, Brooks R, Silove D. 84.  2006. Social capital, socio-economic status and psychological distress among Australian adults. Soc. Sci. Med. 63:2546–61 [Google Scholar]
  85. Pickett KE, Collins JW Jr, Masi CM, Wilkinson RG. 85.  2005. The effects of racial density and income incongruity on pregnancy outcomes. Soc. Sci. Med. 60:2229–38 [Google Scholar]
  86. 86. PNC Financ. Serv. Group 2010. About PNC Grow Up Great http://www.pncgrowupgreat.com/about/index.html [Google Scholar]
  87. Pollack CE, Chideya S, Cubbin C, Williams B, Dekker M, Braveman P. 87.  2007. Should health studies measure wealth? A systematic review. Am. J. Prev. Med. 33250–64 [Google Scholar]
  88. 88. Prev. Inst. 2010. Improving environments for health and health equity http://www.preventioninstitute.org/focus-areas/improving-environments-for-health-and-health-equity.html [Google Scholar]
  89. Robert SA. 89.  1999. Socioeconomic position and health: the independent contribution of community socioeconomic context. Ann. Rev. Sociol. 25:489–516 [Google Scholar]
  90. 90. Robert Wood Johnson Found 2010a. About RWJF http://www.rwjf.org/about/ Links to multiple research products from the U.S.-based RWJF Commission, including new data and reviews of pathways and interventions. [Google Scholar]
  91. 91. Robert Wood Johnson Found 2010b. Commission to Build a Healthier America http://www.commissiononhealth.org/ [Google Scholar]
  92. Rose G, Marmot MG. 92.  1981. Social class and coronary heart disease. Br. Heart J. 45:13–19 [Google Scholar]
  93. Rosen G. 93.  1993. The History of Public Health Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  94. Ross CE. 94.  2000. Neighborhood disadvantage and adult depression. J. Health Soc. Behav. 41:177–87 [Google Scholar]
  95. Ross CE, Mirowsky J. 95.  1999. Refining the association between education and health: the effects of quantity, credential, and selectivity. Demography 36:445–60 [Google Scholar]
  96. Rouse CE, Barrow L. 96.  2006. U.S. elementary and secondary schools: equalizing opportunity or replicating the status quo?. Future Child 16:99–123 [Google Scholar]
  97. Sallis JF, Glanz K. 97.  2006. The role of built environments in physical activity, eating, and obesity in childhood. Future Child 16:89–108 [Google Scholar]
  98. Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F. 98.  1997. Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science 277:918–24 [Google Scholar]
  99. Sanders LM, Federico S, Klass P, Abrams MA, Dreyer B. 99.  2009. Literacy and child health: a systematic review. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 163:131–40 [Google Scholar]
  100. Schweinhart L, Barnes HV, Weikart DP. 100.  1993. Significant Benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study Through Age 27 Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press [Google Scholar]
  101. Seeman T, Epel E, Gruenewald T, Karlamangla A, McEwen BS. 101.  2010. Socio-economic differentials in peripheral biology: cumulative allostatic load. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:223–39 [Google Scholar]
  102. Seeman TE, McEwen BS, Rowe JW, Singer BH. 102.  2001. Allostatic load as a marker of cumulative biological risk: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:4770–75 [Google Scholar]
  103. Seeman TE, Singer BH, Rowe JW, Horwitz RI, McEwen BS. 103.  1997. Price of adaptation—allostatic load and its health consequences. MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging. Arch. Intern. Med. 157:2259–68 [Google Scholar]
  104. Stansfeld S, Bosma H, Hemingway H, Marmot M. 104.  1998a. Psychosocial work characteristics and social support as predictors of SF-36 health functioning: The Whitehall II Study. Psychosom. Med. 60:247–55 [Google Scholar]
  105. Stansfeld S, Shipley M, Marmot M. 105.  1999. Work characteristics predict psychiatric disorders: prospective results from the Whitehall II study. Occup. Environ. Med. 56:5302–7 [Google Scholar]
  106. Stansfeld SA, Head J, Marmot MG. 106.  1998b. Explaining social class differences in depression and well-being. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 33:1–9 [Google Scholar]
  107. Stansfeld SA, Rael EGS, Head J, Shipley M, Marmot M. 107.  1997. Social support and psychiatric sickness absence: a prospective study of British civil servants. Psychol. Med. 27:35–48 [Google Scholar]
  108. Steptoe A, Marmot M. 108.  2002. The role of psychobiological pathways in socio-economic inequalities in cardiovascular disease risk. Eur. Heart J. 23:13–25 [Google Scholar]
  109. Stringhini S, Sabia S, Shipley M, Brunner E, Nabi H. 109.  et al. 2010. Association of socioeconomic position with health behaviors and mortality. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 303:1159–66 [Google Scholar]
  110. Uchino B. 110.  2006. Social support and health: a review of physiological processes potentially underlying links to disease outcomes. J. Behav. Med. 29:377–87 [Google Scholar]
  111. 111. Univ. Calif. San Franc. 2008. MacArthur Foundation Research Network on SES and Health http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/ [Google Scholar]
  112. 112. U.S. Bur. Labor Stat 2008. A Profile of the Working Poor, 2006 Washington, DC: U.S. Dep. Labor [Google Scholar]
  113. 113. U.S. Dep. Health Hum. Serv. 2008. The Secretary's Advisory Committee on National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives for 2020. Phase I report: recommendations for the framework and format of Healthy People 2020 http://www.healthypeople.gov/hp2020/advisory/PhaseI/PhaseI.pdf [Google Scholar]
  114. Votruba-Drzal E. 114.  2003. Income changes and cognitive stimulation in young children's home learning environments. J. Marriage Fam. 65:341–55 [Google Scholar]
  115. Warburton DE, Nicol CW, Bredin SS. 115.  2006. Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 174:801–9 [Google Scholar]
  116. Wilkinson RG, Pickett KE. 116.  2006. Income inequality and population health: a review and explanation of the evidence. Soc. Sci. Med. 62:1768–84 [Google Scholar]
  117. Williams DR, Collins C. 117.  2001. Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Rep. 116:404–16 [Google Scholar]
  118. Williams DR, Mohammed SA. 118.  2009. Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research. J. Behav. Med. 32:20–47 [Google Scholar]
  119. Williams DR, Mohammed SA, Leavell J, Collins C. 119.  2010. Race, socioeconomic status, and health: complexities, ongoing challenges, and research opportunities. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:69–101 [Google Scholar]
  120. Winkleby M, Cubbin C, Ahn D. 120.  2006. Effect of cross-level interaction between individual and neighborhood socioeconomic status on adult mortality rates. Am. J. Public Health 96:2145–53 [Google Scholar]
  121. Wolff L, Subramanian SV, Acevedo-Garcia D, Weber D, Kawachi I. 121.  2010. Compared to whom? Subjective social status, self-rated health, and referent group sensitivity in a diverse US sample. Soc. Sci. Med. 70:2019–28 [Google Scholar]
  122. 122. World Health Organ 2010. Commission on the Social Determinants of Health, 2005–2008 http://www.who.int/social_determinants/thecommission/en/ [Google Scholar]
  123. 123. World Health Organ 2008. Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health Equity Through Action on the Social Determinants of Health. Final Report of the Commission on the Social Determinants of Health. Geneva: World Health Organ.Extensive report reviewing global experience with interventions as well as knowledge of pathways. [Google Scholar]
  124. Yeung WJ, Linver MR, Brooks-Gunn J. 124.  2002. How money matters for young children's development: parental investment and family processes. Child Dev. 73:1861–79 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031210-101218
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031210-101218
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error