1932

Abstract

In a context where epidemiologic research has been heavily influenced by a biomedical and individualistic approach, the naming of “social epidemiology” allowed explicit emphasis on the social production of disease as a powerful explanatory paradigm and as critically important for interventions to improve population health. This review briefly highlights key substantive areas of focus in social epidemiology over the past 30 years, reflects on major advances and insights, and identifies challenges and possible future directions. Future opportunities for social epidemiology include grounding research in theoretically based and systemic conceptual models of the fundamental social drivers of health; implementing a scientifically rigorous yet realistic approach to drawing conclusions about social causes; using complementary methods to generate valid explanations and identify effective actions; leveraging the power of harmonization, replication, and big data; extending interdisciplinarity and diversity; advancing emerging critical approaches to understanding the health impacts of systemic racism and its policy implications; going global; and embracing a broad approach to generating socially useful research.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060220-042648
2022-04-05
2024-10-03
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/43/1/annurev-publhealth-060220-042648.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060220-042648&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. 
    Abraido-Lanza AF, Echeverria SE, Florez KR. 2016. Latino immigrants, acculturation, and health: promising new directions in research. Annu. Rev. Public Health 37:219–36
    [Google Scholar]
  2. 2. 
    Adkins-Jackson PB, Chantarat T, Bailey ZD, Ponce NA. 2021. Measuring structural racism: a guide for epidemiologists and other health researchers. Am. J. Epidemiol. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwab239. In press
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. 3. 
    Adler NE, Stewart J. 2010. Health disparities across the lifespan: meaning, methods, and mechanisms. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:5–23
    [Google Scholar]
  4. 4. 
    Alang S, McAlpine D, McCreedy E, Hardeman R 2017. Police brutality and Black health: setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107:662–65
    [Google Scholar]
  5. 5. 
    Auchincloss AH, Diez Roux AV. 2008. A new tool for epidemiology: the usefulness of dynamic-agent models in understanding place effects on health. Am. J. Epidemiol. 168:1–8
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6. 
    Auchincloss AH, Riolo RL, Brown DG, Cook J, Diez Roux AV. 2011. An agent-based model of income inequalities in diet in the context of residential segregation. Am. J. Prev. Med. 40:303–11
    [Google Scholar]
  7. 7. 
    Bailey ZD, Feldman JM, Bassett MT. 2021. How structural racism works—racist policies as a root cause of U.S. racial health inequities. N. Engl. J. Med. 384:768–73
    [Google Scholar]
  8. 8. 
    Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agenor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett MT. 2017. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. Lancet 389:1453–63
    [Google Scholar]
  9. 9. 
    Bambra C, Smith KE, Garthwaite K, Joyce KE, Hunter DJ 2011. A labour of Sisyphus? Public policy and health inequalities research from the Black and Acheson Reports to the Marmot Review. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 65:399–406
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 10. 
    Bannister-Tyrrell M, Meiqari L. 2020. Qualitative research in epidemiology: theoretical and methodological perspectives. Ann. Epidemiol. 49:27–35
    [Google Scholar]
  11. 11. 
    Blane D 2006. The life course, the social gradient, and health. Social Determinants of Health M Marmot, RG Wilkinson 54–77 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  12. 12. 
    Borrell LN, Elhawary JR, Fuentes-Afflick E, Witonsky J, Bhakta N et al. 2021. Race and genetic ancestry in medicine—a time for reckoning with racism. N. Engl. J. Med. 384:474–80
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 13. 
    Bowleg L. 2012. The problem with the phrase women and minorities: intersectionality—an important theoretical framework for public health. Am. J. Public Health 102:1267–73
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14. 
    Branas CC, Cheney RA, MacDonald JM, Tam VW, Jackson TD, Ten Have TR 2011. A difference-in-differences analysis of health, safety, and greening vacant urban space. Am. J. Epidemiol. 174:1296–306
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15. 
    Braverman-Bronstein A, Hessel P, González-Uribe C, Kroker MF, Diez-Canseco F et al. 2021. Association of education level with diabetes prevalence in Latin American cities and its modification by city social environment. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 75:874–80
    [Google Scholar]
  16. 16. 
    Brulle RJ, Pellow DN. 2006. Environmental justice: human health and environmental inequalities. Annu. Rev. Public Health 27:103–24
    [Google Scholar]
  17. 17. 
    Castle B, Wendel M, Kerr J, Brooms D, Rollins A. 2019. Public health's approach to systemic racism: a systematic literature review. J. Racial Ethn. Health Disparities 6:27–36
    [Google Scholar]
  18. 18. 
    Cerdá M, Diez-Roux AV, Tchetgen ET, Gordon-Larsen P, Kiefe C. 2010. The relationship between neighborhood poverty and alcohol use: estimation by marginal structural models. Epidemiology 21:482–89
    [Google Scholar]
  19. 19. 
    Cerdá M, Keyes KM. 2019. Systems modeling to advance the promise of data science in epidemiology. Am. J. Epidemiol. 188:862–65
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 20. 
    Cerdá M, Morenoff JD, Hansen BB, Tessari Hicks KJ, Duque LF et al. 2012. Reducing violence by transforming neighborhoods: a natural experiment in Medellín, Colombia. Am. J. Epidemiol. 175:1045–53
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. 
    Cerdá M, Tracy M, Keyes KM 2018. Reducing urban violence: a contrast of public health and criminal justice approaches. Epidemiology 29:142–50
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22. 
    Clarkwest A. 2008. Neo-materialist theory and the temporal relationship between income inequality and longevity change. Soc. Sci. Med. 66:1871–81
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23. 
    Clougherty JE, Souza K, Cullen MR. 2010. Work and its role in shaping the social gradient in health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:102–24
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24. 
    Coburn D. 2015. Income inequality, welfare, class and health: a comment on Pickett and Wilkinson, 2015. Soc. Sci. Med. 146:228–32
    [Google Scholar]
  25. 25. 
    Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Chen E, Matthews KA 2010. Childhood socioeconomic status and adult health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:37–55
    [Google Scholar]
  26. 26. 
    Craig P, Katikireddi SV, Leyland A, Popham F 2017. Natural experiments: an overview of methods, approaches, and contributions to public health intervention research. Annu. Rev. Public Health 38:39–56
    [Google Scholar]
  27. 27. 
    Dahl E, van der Wel KA. 2013. Educational inequalities in health in European welfare states: a social expenditure approach. Soc. Sci. Med. 81:60–69
    [Google Scholar]
  28. 28. 
    Daniels K, Lê-Scherban F, Auchincloss AH, Moore K, Melly S et al. 2021. Longitudinal associations of neighborhood environment features with pediatric body mass index. Health Place 71:102656
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29. 
    Diez Roux AV 2007. Neighborhoods and health: Where are we and where do we go from here?. Rev. Epidemiol. Sante Publique 55:13–21
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30. 
    Diez Roux AV 2011. Complex systems thinking and current impasses in health disparities research. Am. J. Public Health 101:1627–34
    [Google Scholar]
  31. 31. 
    Diez Roux AV 2019. The unique space of epidemiology: drawing on the past to project into the future. Am. J. Epidemiol. 188:886–89
    [Google Scholar]
  32. 32. 
    Diez Roux AV 2020. Population health in the time of COVID-19: confirmations and revelations. Milbank Q 98:629–40
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33. 
    Diez Roux AV, Mair C 2010. Neighborhoods and health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:125–45
    [Google Scholar]
  34. 34. 
    Diez Roux AV, Mujahid MS, Hirsch JA, Moore K, Moore LV 2016. The impact of neighborhoods on CV risk. Glob. Heart 11:353–63
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35. 
    Dougherty GB, Golden SH, Gross AL, Colantuoni E, Dean LT 2020. Measuring structural racism and its association with BMI. Am. J. Prev. Med. 59:530–37
    [Google Scholar]
  36. 36. 
    Dow WH, Rehkopf DH. 2010. Socioeconomic gradients in health in international and historical context. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:24–36
    [Google Scholar]
  37. 37. 
    Dowd JB, Simanek AM, Aiello AE. 2009. Socio-economic status, cortisol and allostatic load: a review of the literature. Int. J. Epidemiol. 38:1297–309
    [Google Scholar]
  38. 38. 
    El-Sayed AM, Seemann L, Scarborough P, Galea S. 2013. Are network-based interventions a useful antiobesity strategy? An application of simulation models for causal inference in epidemiology. Am. J. Epidemiol. 178:287–95
    [Google Scholar]
  39. 39. 
    Evans GW, Kim P. 2010. Multiple risk exposure as a potential explanatory mechanism for the socioeconomic status-health gradient. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:174–89
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 40. 
    Evans L, Engelman M, Mikulas A, Malecki K 2021. How are social determinants of health integrated into epigenetic research? A systematic review. Soc. Sci. Med. 273:113738
    [Google Scholar]
  41. 41. 
    Fernald LCH. 2013. Promise, and risks, of conditional cash transfer programmes. Lancet 382:7–9
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42. 
    Fernald LCH, Hou X, Gertler PJ. 2008. Oportunidades program participation and body mass index, blood pressure, and self-reported health in Mexican adults. Prev. Chronic. Dis. 5:A81
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43. 
    Fink DS, Keyes KM, Cerdá M. 2016. Social determinants of population health: a systems sciences approach. Curr. Epidemiol. Rep. 3:98–105
    [Google Scholar]
  44. 44. 
    Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. 2010. Critical race theory, race equity, and public health: toward antiracism praxis. Am. J. Public Health 100:Suppl. 1S30–35
    [Google Scholar]
  45. 45. 
    Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. 2018. Commentary: Just what is critical race theory and what's it doing in a progressive field like public health?. Ethn. Dis. 28:223–30
    [Google Scholar]
  46. 46. 
    Ford CL, Harawa NT. 2010. A new conceptualization of ethnicity for social epidemiologic and health equity research. Soc. Sci. Med. 71:251–58
    [Google Scholar]
  47. 47. 
    Galea S, Riddle M, Kaplan GA. 2010. Causal thinking and complex system approaches in epidemiology. Int. J. Epidemiol. 39:97–106
    [Google Scholar]
  48. 48. 
    Gee GC, Ford CL. 2011. Structural racism and health inequities: old issues, new directions. Du Bois Rev 8:115–32
    [Google Scholar]
  49. 49. 
    Ghosh-Dastidar M, Hunter G, Collins RL, Zenk SN, Cummins S et al. 2017. Does opening a supermarket in a food desert change the food environment?. Health Place 46:249–56
    [Google Scholar]
  50. 50. 
    Glymour MM. 2008. Sensitive periods and first difference models: integrating etiologic thinking into econometric techniques: a commentary on Clarkwest's “neo-materialist theory and the temporal relationship between income inequality and longevity change. .” Soc. Sci. Med. 66:1895–902
    [Google Scholar]
  51. 51. 
    Glymour MM, Hamad R. 2018. Causal thinking as a critical tool for eliminating social inequalities in health. Am. J. Public Health 108:623
    [Google Scholar]
  52. 52. 
    Glymour MM, Osypuk TL, Rehkopf DH. 2013. Invited commentary: off-roading with social epidemiology—exploration, causation, translation. Am. J. Epidemiol. 178:858–63
    [Google Scholar]
  53. 53. 
    Gravelle H. 1998. How much of the relation between population mortality and unequal distribution of income is a statistical artefact?. BMJ 316:382–85
    [Google Scholar]
  54. 54. 
    Harper S. 2019. A future for observational epidemiology: clarity, credibility, transparency. Am. J. Epidemiol. 188:840–45
    [Google Scholar]
  55. 55. 
    Harper S, Strumpf EC. 2012. Social epidemiology: questionable answers and answerable questions. Epidemiology 23:795–98
    [Google Scholar]
  56. 56. 
    Hu Y, van Lenthe FJ, Borsboom GJ, Looman CW, Bopp M et al. 2016. Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in self-assessed health in 17 European countries between 1990 and 2010. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 70:644–52
    [Google Scholar]
  57. 57. 
    Ichida Y, Hirai H, Kondo K, Kawachi I, Takeda T, Endo H 2013. Does social participation improve self-rated health in the older population? A quasi-experimental intervention study. Soc. Sci. Med. 94:83–90
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58. 
    Kamphuis CBM, Turrell G, Giskes K, Mackenbach JP, van Lenthe FJ. 2012. Socioeconomic inequalities in cardiovascular mortality and the role of childhood socioeconomic conditions and adulthood risk factors: a prospective cohort study with 17-years of follow up. BMC Public Health 12:1045
    [Google Scholar]
  59. 59. 
    Kawachi I. 2002. Social epidemiology. Soc. Sci. Med. 54:1739–41
    [Google Scholar]
  60. 60. 
    Kawachi I, Adler NE, Dow WH. 2010. Money, schooling, and health: mechanisms and causal evidence. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:56–68
    [Google Scholar]
  61. 61. 
    Kawachi I, Berkman LF 2014. Social capital, social cohesion and health. Social Epidemiology LF Berkman, I Kawachi, MM Glymour 174–90 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  62. 62. 
    Kawachi I, Kennedy BP. 1999. Income inequality and health: pathways and mechanisms. Health Serv. Res. 34:215–27
    [Google Scholar]
  63. 63. 
    Kawachi I, Subramanian SV. 2018. Social epidemiology for the 21st century. Soc. Sci. Med. 196:240–45
    [Google Scholar]
  64. 64. 
    Kawachi I, Subramanian SV, Kim D 2008. Social Capital and Health New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65. 
    Kershaw KN, Albrecht SS, Carnethon MR 2013. Racial and ethnic residential segregation, the neighborhood socioeconomic environment, and obesity among Blacks and Mexican Americans. Am. J. Epidemiol. 177:299–309
    [Google Scholar]
  66. 66. 
    Kreatsoulas C, Subramanian SV. 2018. Machine learning in social epidemiology: learning from experience. SSM Popul. Health 4:347–49
    [Google Scholar]
  67. 67. 
    Krieger N. 2001. A glossary for social epidemiology. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 55:693–700
    [Google Scholar]
  68. 68. 
    Krieger N. 2001. Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: an ecosocial perspective. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30:668–77
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69. 
    Krieger N. 2005. Embodiment: a conceptual glossary for epidemiology. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 59:350–55
    [Google Scholar]
  70. 70. 
    Krieger N, Davey Smith G. 2016. The tale wagged by the DAG: broadening the scope of causal inference and explanation for epidemiology. Int. J. Epidemiol. 45:1787–808
    [Google Scholar]
  71. 71. 
    Krieger N, Williams DR, Moss NE 1997. Measuring social class in US public health research: concepts, methodologies, and guidelines. Annu. Rev. Public Health 18:341–78
    [Google Scholar]
  72. 72. 
    Langellier BA, Kuhlberg JA, Ballard EA, Slesinski SC, Stankov I et al. 2019. Using community-based system dynamics modeling to understand the complex systems that influence health in cities: the SALURBAL study. Health Place 60:102215
    [Google Scholar]
  73. 73. 
    Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, Williams DR, Mero RP, Chen J. 1998. Socioeconomic factors, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of US adults. JAMA 279:1703–8
    [Google Scholar]
  74. 74. 
    Lash TL, Collin LJ, Van Dyke ME 2018. The replication crisis in epidemiology: snowball, snow job, or winter solstice?. Curr. Epidemiol. Rep. 5:175–83
    [Google Scholar]
  75. 75. 
    Lewis TT, Cogburn CD, Williams DR. 2015. Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 11:407–40
    [Google Scholar]
  76. 76. 
    Lewis TT, Van Dyke ME. 2018. Discrimination and the health of African Americans: the potential importance of intersectionalities. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 27:176–82
    [Google Scholar]
  77. 77. 
    Lieberson S. 1985. Making It Count: The Improvement of Social Research and Theory Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  78. 78. 
    Link BG, Northridge ME, Phelan JC, Ganz ML. 1998. Social epidemiology and the fundamental cause concept: on the structuring of effective cancer screens by socioeconomic status. Milbank Q 76:375–402304–5
    [Google Scholar]
  79. 79. 
    Lorenc T, Petticrew M, Welch V, Tugwell P 2013. What types of interventions generate inequalities? Evidence from systematic reviews. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 67:190–93
    [Google Scholar]
  80. 80. 
    Ludwig J, Miller DL 2007. Does Head Start improve children's life chances? Evidence from a regression discontinuity design. Q. J. Econ. 122:159–208
    [Google Scholar]
  81. 81. 
    Ludwig J, Sanbonmatsu L, Gennetian L, Adam E, Duncan GJ et al. 2011. Neighborhoods, obesity, and diabetes—a randomized social experiment. N. Engl. J. Med. 365:1509–19
    [Google Scholar]
  82. 82. 
    Lynch JW, Davey Smith G, Kaplan GA, House JS 2000. Income inequality and mortality: importance to health of individual income, psychosocial environment, or material conditions. BMJ 320:1200–4
    [Google Scholar]
  83. 83. 
    Mackenbach JP. 2010. Has the English strategy to reduce health inequalities failed?. Soc. Sci. Med. 71:1249–53
    [Google Scholar]
  84. 84. 
    Mackenbach JP, Bakker MJEur. Netw. Interv. Policies Reduce Inequalities Health 2003. Tackling socioeconomic inequalities in health: analysis of European experiences. Lancet 362:1409–14
    [Google Scholar]
  85. 85. 
    Mackenbach JP, Stirbu I, Roskam A-JR, Schaap MM, Menvielle G et al. 2008. Socioeconomic inequalities in health in 22 European countries. N. Engl. J. Med. 358:2468–81
    [Google Scholar]
  86. 86. 
    Matthews KA, Gallo LC, Taylor SE. 2010. Are psychosocial factors mediators of socioeconomic status and health connections? A progress report and blueprint for the future. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:146–73
    [Google Scholar]
  87. 87. 
    McClure ES, Vasudevan P, Bailey Z, Patel S, Robinson WR 2020. Racial capitalism within public health—how occupational settings drive COVID-19 disparities. Am. J. Epidemiol. 189:1244–53
    [Google Scholar]
  88. 88. 
    McDade TW, Harris KM 2018. The biosocial approach to human development, behavior, and health across the life course. RSF 4:2–26
    [Google Scholar]
  89. 89. 
    McEwen BS, Gianaros PJ. 2010. Central role of the brain in stress and adaptation: links to socioeconomic status, health, and disease. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:190–222
    [Google Scholar]
  90. 90. 
    Montez JK, Beckfield J, Cooney JK, Grumbach JM, Hayward MD et al. 2020. US state policies, politics, and life expectancy. Milbank Q 98:668–99
    [Google Scholar]
  91. 91. 
    Muntaner C. 2013. Invited commentary: on the future of social epidemiology—a case for scientific realism. Am. J. Epidemiol. 178:852–57
    [Google Scholar]
  92. 92. 
    Muntaner C, Gomez MB. 2003. Qualitative and quantitative research in social epidemiology: Is complementarity the only issue?. Gac. Sanit. 17:Suppl. 353–57
    [Google Scholar]
  93. 93. 
    Muscatell KA, Brosso SN, Humphreys KL. 2020. Socioeconomic status and inflammation: a meta-analysis. Mol. Psychiatry 25:2189–99
    [Google Scholar]
  94. 94. 
    Needham BL, Adler N, Gregorich S, Rehkopf D, Lin J et al. 2013. Socioeconomic status, health behavior, and leukocyte telomere length in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2002. Soc. Sci. Med. 85:1–8
    [Google Scholar]
  95. 95. 
    Osypuk TL, Tchetgen EJ, Acevedo-Garcia D, Earls FJ, Lincoln A et al. 2012. Differential mental health effects of neighborhood relocation among youth in vulnerable families: results from a randomized trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 69:1284–94
    [Google Scholar]
  96. 96. 
    Palència L, Malmusi D, De Moortel D, Artazcoz L, Backhans M et al. 2014. The influence of gender equality policies on gender inequalities in health in Europe. Soc. Sci. Med. 117:25–33
    [Google Scholar]
  97. 97. 
    Pampel FC, Krueger PM, Denney JT. 2010. Socioeconomic disparities in health behaviors. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 36:349–70
    [Google Scholar]
  98. 98. 
    Paradies Y, Ben J, Denson N, Elias A, Priest N et al. 2015. Racism as a determinant of health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE 10:e0138511
    [Google Scholar]
  99. 99. 
    Patel CJ, Bhattacharya J, Butte AJ. 2010. An environment-wide association study (EWAS) on type 2 diabetes mellitus. PLOS ONE 5:e10746
    [Google Scholar]
  100. 100. 
    Patel CJ, Ioannidis JPA, Cullen MR, Rehkopf DH. 2015. Systematic assessment of the correlations of household income with infectious, biochemical, physiological, and environmental factors in the United States, 1999–2006. Am. J. Epidemiol. 181:171–79
    [Google Scholar]
  101. 101. 
    Petteway R, Mujahid M, Allen A, Morello-Frosch R 2019. Towards a people's social epidemiology: envisioning a more inclusive and equitable future for social epi research and practice in the 21st century. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16:3983
    [Google Scholar]
  102. 102. 
    Phelan JC, Link BG. 2015. Is racism a fundamental cause of inequalities in health?. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 41:311–30
    [Google Scholar]
  103. 103. 
    Pickett KE, Wilkinson RG. 2015. Income inequality and health: a causal review. Soc. Sci. Med. 128:316–26
    [Google Scholar]
  104. 104. 
    Portes A. 1998. Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 24:1–24
    [Google Scholar]
  105. 105. 
    Ragin CC. 1999. Using qualitative comparative analysis to study causal complexity. Health Serv. Res. 34:1225–39
    [Google Scholar]
  106. 106. 
    Rajkomar A, Hardt M, Howell MD, Corrado G, Chin MH 2018. Ensuring fairness in machine learning to advance health equity. Ann. Intern. Med. 169:866–72
    [Google Scholar]
  107. 107. 
    Reiss D, Leve LD, Neiderhiser JM. 2013. How genes and the social environment moderate each other. Am. J. Public Health 103:Suppl. 1S111–21
    [Google Scholar]
  108. 108. 
    Rettenmaier AJ, Wang Z. 2013. What determines health: a causal analysis using county level data. Eur. J. Health Econ. 14:821–34
    [Google Scholar]
  109. 109. 
    Ro A. 2014. The longer you stay, the worse your health? A critical review of the negative acculturation theory among Asian immigrants. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 11:8038–57
    [Google Scholar]
  110. 110. 
    Robinson WR, Bailey ZD 2020. Invited commentary: what social epidemiology brings to the table—reconciling social epidemiology and causal inference. Am. J. Epidemiol. 189:171–74
    [Google Scholar]
  111. 111. 
    Rodgers GB. 1979. Income and inequality as determinants of mortality: an international cross-section analysis. Popul. Stud. 33:343–51
    [Google Scholar]
  112. 112. 
    Rudd RA, Seth P, David F, Scholl L 2016. Increases in drug and opioid-involved overdose deaths—United States, 2010–2015. MMWR 65:1445–52
    [Google Scholar]
  113. 113. 
    Schinasi LH, Auchincloss AH, Forrest CB, Diez Roux AV 2018. Using electronic health record data for environmental and place based population health research: a systematic review. Ann. Epidemiol. 28:493–502
    [Google Scholar]
  114. 114. 
    Schwartz S, Prins SJ, Campbell UB, Gatto NM. 2016. Is the “well-defined intervention assumption” politically conservative?. Soc. Sci. Med. 166:254–57
    [Google Scholar]
  115. 115. 
    Seeman T, Epel E, Gruenewald T, Karlamangla A, McEwen BS 2010. Socio-economic differentials in peripheral biology: cumulative allostatic load. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:223–39
    [Google Scholar]
  116. 116. 
    Seligman B, Tuljapurkar S, Rehkopf D 2018. Machine learning approaches to the social determinants of health in the Health and Retirement Study.. SSM Popul. Health 4:95–99
    [Google Scholar]
  117. 117. 
    Shahu A, Herrin J, Dhruva SS, Desai NR, Davis BR et al. 2019. Disparities in socioeconomic context and association with blood pressure control and cardiovascular outcomes in ALLHAT. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 8:e012277
    [Google Scholar]
  118. 118. 
    Subramanian SV, Kawachi I. 2004. Income inequality and health: What have we learned so far?. Epidemiol. Rev. 26:78–91
    [Google Scholar]
  119. 119. 
    Subramanian SV, Kawachi I 2006. Whose health is affected by income inequality? A multilevel interaction analysis of contemporaneous and lagged effects of state income inequality on individual self-rated health in the United States. Health Place 12:141–56
    [Google Scholar]
  120. 120. 
    Tajer D. 2003. Latin American social medicine: roots, development during the 1990s, and current challenges. Am. J. Public Health 93:2023–27
    [Google Scholar]
  121. 121. 
    Taylor LA, Tan AX, Coyle CE, Ndumele C, Rogan E et al. 2016. Leveraging the social determinants of health: What works?. PLOS ONE 11:e0160217
    [Google Scholar]
  122. 122. 
    Thomson K, Hillier-Brown F, Todd A, McNamara C, Huijts T, Bambra C. 2018. The effects of public health policies on health inequalities in high-income countries: an umbrella review. BMC Public Health 18:869
    [Google Scholar]
  123. 123. 
    Troxel WM, Bogart A, Holliday SB, Dubowitz T, Ghosh-Dastidar B et al. 2021. Mixed effects of neighborhood revitalization on residents’ cardiometabolic health. Am. J. Prev. Med. 61:683–91
    [Google Scholar]
  124. 124. 
    Villalonga-Olives E, Kawachi I 2017. The dark side of social capital: a systematic review of the negative health effects of social capital. Soc. Sci. Med. 194:105–27
    [Google Scholar]
  125. 125. 
    Weiss CH. 1977. Research for policy's sake: the enlightenment function of social research. Policy Anal 3:531–47
    [Google Scholar]
  126. 126. 
    Wilkinson RG. 1992. Income distribution and life expectancy. BMJ 304:165–68
    [Google Scholar]
  127. 127. 
    Williams DR. 1999. Race, socioeconomic status, and health. The added effects of racism and discrimination. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 896:173–88
    [Google Scholar]
  128. 128. 
    Williams DR, Cooper LA. 2019. Reducing racial inequities in health: using what we already know to take action. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16:606
    [Google Scholar]
  129. 129. 
    Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA. 2019. Racism and health: evidence and needed research. Annu. Rev. Public Health 40:105–25
    [Google Scholar]
  130. 130. 
    Williams DR, Priest N, Anderson NB. 2016. Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: patterns and prospects. Health Psychol 35:407–11
    [Google Scholar]
  131. 131. 
    Yang Y, Langellier BA, Stankov I, Purtle J, Nelson KL et al. 2020. Public transit and depression among older adults: using agent-based models to examine plausible impacts of a free bus policy. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 74:875–81
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060220-042648
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060220-042648
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error