1932

Abstract

Community health workers (CHWs) have worked in a variety of settings in the United States for more than 70 years and are increasingly recognized as an essential health workforce. CHWs share life experience with the people they serve and have firsthand knowledge of the causes and impacts of health inequity. They provide a critical link between marginalized communities and health care and public health services. Several studies have demonstrated that CHWs can improve the management of chronic conditions, increase access to preventive care, improve patients’ experience of care, and reduce health care costs. CHWs can also advance health equity by addressing social needs and advocating for systems and policy change. This review provides a history of CHW integration with health care in the United States; describes evidence of the impact of CHW programs on population health, experience, costs of care, and health equity; and identifies considerations for CHW program expansion.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-071521-031648
2023-04-03
2024-12-04
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/44/1/annurev-publhealth-071521-031648.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-071521-031648&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1.
    Adams LB, Richmond J, Watson SN, Cené CW, Urrutia R et al. 2021. Community health worker training curricula and intervention outcomes in African American and Latinx communities: a systematic review. Health Educ. Behav. 48:516–31
    [Google Scholar]
  2. 2.
    AHRQ (Agency Healthc. Res. Quality) 2022. 2021 National healthcare quality and disparities report Rep., AHRQ Rockville, MD: https://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/wysiwyg/research/findings/nhqrdr/2021qdr.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  3. 3.
    Albritton E, Hernández-Cancio S, Lutz W, Morris C, Morton N et al. 2016. How states can fund community health workers through Medicaid to improve people's health, decrease costs, and reduce disparities Issue Brief, Families USA Washington, DC: https://familiesusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/HE_HST_Community_Health_Workers_Brief_v4.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  4. 4.
    Allen C, Brownstein JN, Mirambeau A, Jayapaul-Philip B. 2014. States implementing community health worker strategies Tech. Assist. Guide, Natl. Cent. Chronic Dis. Prev. Health Promot., Div. Heart Dis. Stroke, Cent. Dis. Control Prev. Atlanta, GA: https://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/programs/spha/docs/1305_ta_guide_chws.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  5. 5.
    Allen CG, Barbero C, Shantharam S, Moeti R. 2019. Is theory guiding our work? A scoping review on the use of implementation theories, frameworks, and models to bring community health workers into health care settings. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 25:571–80
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6.
    Allen CG, Escoffery C, Satsangi A, Brownstein JN. 2015. Strategies to improve the integration of community health workers into health care teams: “A little fish in a big pond. .” Prev. Chronic Dis. 12:E154
    [Google Scholar]
  7. 7.
    Allen JK, Dennison-Himmelfarb CR, Szanton SL, Bone L, Hill MN et al. 2011. Community Outreach and Cardiovascular Health (COACH) trial: a randomized, controlled trial of nurse practitioner/community health worker cardiovascular disease risk reduction in urban community health centers. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 4:595–602
    [Google Scholar]
  8. 8.
    Am. Public Health Assoc 2009. Support for community health workers to increase health access and to reduce health inequities Policy Statement 20091, Nov. 10. https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2014/07/09/14/19/support-for-community-health-workers-to-increase-health-access-and-to-reduce-health-inequities
    [Google Scholar]
  9. 9.
    Andrews JO, Mueller M, Dooley M, Newman SD, Magwood GS, Tingen MS. 2016. Effect of a smoking cessation intervention for women in subsidized neighborhoods: a randomized controlled trial. Prev. Med. 90:170–76
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 10.
    Ariz. Prev. Res. Cent 2014. National Community Health Worker Advocacy Survey Rep., Zuckerman Coll. Public Health, Univ. Ariz. Tucson: http://www.institutephi.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/survey-of-Community-Health-Workers.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  11. 11.
    Arvey SR, Fernandez ME. 2012. Identifying the core elements of effective community health worker programs: a research agenda. Am. J. Public Health 102:1633–37
    [Google Scholar]
  12. 12.
    Attipoe-Dorcoo S, Chattopadhyay SK, Verughese J, Ekwueme DU, Sabatino SA, Peng Y. 2021. Engaging community health workers to increase cancer screening: A Community Guide systematic economic review. Am. J. Prev. Med. 60:e189–97
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 13.
    Babamoto KS, Sey KA, Camilleri AJ, Karlan VJ, Catalasan J, Morisky DE. 2009. Improving diabetes care and health measures among Hispanics using community health workers: results from a randomized controlled trial. Health Educ. Behav. 36:113–26
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14.
    Bailey ZD, Feldman JM, Bassett MT. 2021. How structural racism works—racist policies as a root cause of US racial health inequities. N. Engl. J. Med. 384:768–73
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15.
    Balcazar H, Rosenthal EL, Brownstein JN, Rush CH, Matos S, Hernandez L. 2011. Community health workers can be a public health force for change in the United States: three actions for a new paradigm. Am. J. Public Health 101:2199–203
    [Google Scholar]
  16. 16.
    Beasley JM, Shah M, Wyatt LC, Zanowiak J, Trinh-Shevrin C, Islam NS. 2021. A community health worker-led intervention to improve blood pressure control in an immigrant community with comorbid diabetes: data from two randomized controlled trials conducted in 2011–2019. Am. J. Public Health 111:1040–44
    [Google Scholar]
  17. 17.
    Bellhouse S, McWilliams L, Firth J, Yorke J, French DP. 2018. Are community-based health worker interventions an effective approach for early diagnosis of cancer? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychooncology 27:1089–99
    [Google Scholar]
  18. 18.
    Berwick DM, Nolan TW, Whittington J. 2008. The triple aim: care, health, and cost. Health Aff 27:759–69
    [Google Scholar]
  19. 19.
    Bhaumik U, Norris K, Charron G, Walker SP, Sommer SJ et al. 2013. A cost analysis for a community-based case management intervention program for pediatric asthma. J. Asthma 50:310–17
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 20.
    Braveman P, Gottlieb L. 2014. The social determinants of health: It's time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Rep 129:19–31
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21.
    Braveman PA, Arkin E, Proctor D, Kauh T, Holm N. 2022. Systemic and structural racism: definitions, examples, health damages, and approaches to dismantling. Health Aff 41:171–78
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22.
    Brown HS III, Wilson KJ, Pagán JA, Arcari CM, Martinez M et al. 2012. Cost-effectiveness analysis of a community health worker intervention for low-income Hispanic adults with diabetes. Prev. Chronic Dis. 9:E140
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23.
    Brownstein JN, Chowdhury FM, Norris SL, Horsley T, Jack L Jr. et al. 2007. Effectiveness of community health workers in the care of people with hypertension. Am. J. Prev. Med. 32:435–47
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24.
    Bur. Labor Stat 2022. Occupational employment and wages, May 2021. 21–1094 community health workers. Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes211094.htm
    [Google Scholar]
  25. 25.
    Butler E, Kangovi S. 2019. Health care providers are hiring the wrong people. Harvard Business Review Oct. 21. https://hbr.org/2019/10/health-care-providers-are-hiring-the-wrong-people
    [Google Scholar]
  26. 26.
    Campbell JD, Brooks M, Hosokawa P, Robinson J, Song L, Krieger J. 2015. Community health worker home visits for Medicaid-enrolled children with asthma: effects on asthma outcomes and costs. Am. J. Public Health 105:2366–72
    [Google Scholar]
  27. 27.
    Campos-Dominguez T, Rumala BB. 2020. Case study—role of community health workers in addressing inequities and systems transformation during COVID-19 and beyond: an opportunity for health department and organizational practices White Pap., Community Health Work. COVID-19 Writ. Group https://www.communitycommons.org/entities/8d9c4ff5-a513-45bc-a889-dd110c95f82a
    [Google Scholar]
  28. 28.
    Carrasquillo O, Lebron C, Alonzo Y, Li H, Chang A, Kenya S. 2017. Effect of a community health worker intervention among Latinos with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes: the Miami Healthy Heart Initiative randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern. Med 177:948–54
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29.
    CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.) 2014. Policy evidence assessment report: community health worker policy components Rep., CDC, US Dep. Health Hum. Serv. Atlanta, GA: https://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/pubs/docs/chw_evidence_assessment_report.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30.
    CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.) 2021. CDC announces more than $300 million in funding to support community health workers Press Release, Sept. 3. https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2021/p0903-health-worker-funding.html
    [Google Scholar]
  31. 31.
    Cent. Medicare Medicaid Serv 2013. Medicaid and Children's Health Insurance Programs: essential health benefits in alternative benefit plans, eligibility notices, fair hearing and appeals processes, and premiums and cost sharing; exchanges: eligibility and enrollment, final rule. Fed. Regist. 78:42160–322
    [Google Scholar]
  32. 32.
    Cole H, Thompson HS, White M, Browne R, Trinh-Shevrin C et al. 2017. Community-based, preclinical patient navigation for colorectal cancer screening among older Black men recruited from barbershops: the MISTER B trial. Am. J. Public Health 107:1433–40
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33.
    Community-Based Workforce Alliance 2021. Advancing CHW engagement in COVID-19 response strategies: a playbook for local health department strategies in the United States Rep., Community-Based Workforce Alliance https://nachw.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/CWBA-Playbook-11421.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  34. 34.
    Community Prev. Serv. Task Force 2017. Diabetes management: interventions engaging community health workers. Guide to Community Preventive Services https://www.thecommunityguide.org/findings/diabetes-management-interventions-engaging-community-health-workers.html
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35.
    Community Prev. Serv. Task Force 2017. Heart disease and stroke prevention: interventions engaging community health workers. Guide to Community Preventive Services https://www.thecommunityguide.org/findings/heart-disease-stroke-prevention-interventions-engaging-community-health-workers.html
    [Google Scholar]
  36. 36.
    Cross-Barnet C, Ruiz S, Skillman M, Dhopeshwarkar R, Singer R et al. 2018. Higher quality at lower cost: community health worker interventions in the Health Care Innovation Awards. J. Health Disparities Res. Pract. 11:150–64
    [Google Scholar]
  37. 37.
    Cunningham SD, Riis V, Line L, Patti M, Bucher M et al. 2020. Safe Start community health worker program: a multisector partnership to improve perinatal outcomes among low-income pregnant women with chronic health conditions. Am. J. Public Health 110:836–39
    [Google Scholar]
  38. 38.
    Dower C, Knox M, Lindler V, O'Neil E. 2006. Advancing community health worker practice and utilization: the focus on financing Rep., Natl. Fund Med. Educ., Univ. Calif. Cent. Health Prof. San Francisco, CA: https://healthforce.ucsf.edu/sites/healthforce.ucsf.edu/files/publication-pdf/6.%202006-12_Advancing_Community_Health_Worker_Practice_and_Utilization_The_Focus_on_Financing.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  39. 39.
    Felix HC, Mays GP, Stewart MK, Cottoms N, Olson M 2011. The care span: Medicaid savings resulted when community health workers matched those with needs to home and community care. Health Aff 30:1366–74
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 40.
    Fisher EB, Strunk RC, Highstein GR, Kelley-Sykes R, Tarr KL et al. 2009. A randomized controlled evaluation of the effect of community health workers on hospitalization for asthma: the asthma coach. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 163:225–32
    [Google Scholar]
  41. 41.
    Gary TL, Batts-Turner M, Yeh H-C, Hill-Briggs F, Bone LR et al. 2009. The effects of a nurse case manager and a community health worker team on diabetic control, emergency department visits, and hospitalizations among urban African Americans with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. Arch. Intern. Med. 169:1788–94
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42.
    George R, Gunn R, Wiggins N, Rowland R, Davis MM et al. 2020. Early lessons and strategies from statewide efforts to integrate community health workers into Medicaid. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 31:845–58
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43.
    George S, Dixon LZ, Carrasco E, Romo O, Vides L, Balcazar H. 2020. Talk to PAPA: a systematic review of patient/participant (PAPA) feedback on interactions with community health workers using a depth analysis approach. J. Ambul. Care Manag. 43:55–70
    [Google Scholar]
  44. 44.
    Gibbons MC, Tyus NC. 2007. Systematic review of U.S.-based randomized controlled trials using community health workers. Prog. Community Health Partnersh 1:371–81
    [Google Scholar]
  45. 45.
    Health Res. Serv. Adm 2007. Community Health Worker national workforce study Rep., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Health Resour. Serv. Adm., Bur. Health Prof. Washington, DC: https://bhw.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/bureau-health-workforce/data-research/community-health-workforce.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  46. 46.
    Heisler M, Lapidos A, Kieffer E, Henderson J, Guzman R et al. 2022. Impact on health care utilization and costs of a Medicaid community health worker program in Detroit, 2018–2020: a randomized program evaluation. Am. J. Public Health 112:766–75
    [Google Scholar]
  47. 47.
    Hill MN, Han H-R, Dennison CR, Kim MT, Roary MC et al. 2003. Hypertension care and control in underserved urban African American men: behavioral and physiologic outcomes at 36 months. Am. J. Hypertens. 16:906–13
    [Google Scholar]
  48. 48.
    Horwitz LI, Chang C, Arcilla HN, Knickman JR. 2020. Quantifying health systems’ investment in social determinants of health, by sector, 2017–19. Health Aff 39:192–98
    [Google Scholar]
  49. 49.
    Ibe CA, Wilson LM, Brodine J, Monroe D, Boonyasai RT et al. 2020. Impact of community health worker certification on workforce and service delivery for asthma and other selected chronic diseases AHRQ Comp. Eff. Techn. Brief Rockville, MD: Agency Healthc. Res. Qual. (AHRQ)
    [Google Scholar]
  50. 50.
    Ignoffo S, Margellos-Anast H, Banks M, Morris R, Jay K 2022. Clinical integration of community health workers to reduce health inequities in overburdened and under-resourced populations. Popul. Health Manag. 25:280–83
    [Google Scholar]
  51. 51.
    Indian Health Serv 1991. Part 3—professional services. Chapter 16—Community Health Representatives Program. Indian Health Manual Rockville, MD: Dep. Health Hum. Serv. https://www.ihs.gov/ihm/pc/part-3/p3c16/
    [Google Scholar]
  52. 52.
    Islam NS, Zanowiak JM, Riley L, Nadkarni SK, Kwon SC, Trinh-Shevrin C. 2015. Characteristics of Asian American, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander community health worker programs: a systematic review. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 26:238–68
    [Google Scholar]
  53. 53.
    Jack HE, Arabadjis SD, Sun L, Sullivan EE, Phillips RS. 2017. Impact of community health workers on use of healthcare services in the United States: a systematic review. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 32:325–44
    [Google Scholar]
  54. 54.
    Jonas JA, Leu C-S, Reznik M. 2022. A randomized controlled trial of a community health worker delivered home-based asthma intervention to improve pediatric asthma outcomes. J. Asthma 59:395–406
    [Google Scholar]
  55. 55.
    Jones TM, Jeung C, Schulte A, Lewis CM, Maddox PJ. 2022. Hourly wages and turnover of community health workers according to US state certification policy and Medicaid reimbursement, 2010–2021. Am. J. Public Health 112:1480–88
    [Google Scholar]
  56. 56.
    Kangovi S, Mitra N, Grande D, Huo H, Smith RA, Long JA. 2017. Community health worker support for disadvantaged patients with multiple chronic diseases: a randomized clinical trial. Am. J. Public Health 107:1660–67
    [Google Scholar]
  57. 57.
    Kangovi S, Mitra N, Grande D, Long JA, Asch DA. 2020. Evidence-based community health worker program addresses unmet social needs and generates positive return on investment. Health Aff 39:207–13
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58.
    Kangovi S, Mitra N, Grande D, White ML, McCollum S et al. 2014. Patient-centered community health worker intervention to improve posthospital outcomes: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 174:535–43
    [Google Scholar]
  59. 59.
    Kangovi S, Mitra N, Norton L, Harte R, Zhao X et al. 2018. Effect of community health worker support on clinical outcomes of low-income patients across primary care facilities: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern. Med 178:1635–43
    [Google Scholar]
  60. 60.
    Kattan M, Stearns SC, Crain EF, Stout JW, Gergen PJ et al. 2005. Cost-effectiveness of a home-based environmental intervention for inner-city children with asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 116:1058–63
    [Google Scholar]
  61. 61.
    Kenya S, Chida N, Symes S, Shor-Posner G. 2011. Can community health workers improve adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy in the USA? A review of the literature. HIV Med. 12:525–34
    [Google Scholar]
  62. 62.
    Kenya S, Jones J, Arheart K, Kobetz E, Chida N et al. 2013. Using community health workers to improve clinical outcomes among people living with HIV: a randomized controlled trial. AIDS Behav 17:2927–34
    [Google Scholar]
  63. 63.
    Kim K, Choi JS, Choi E, Nieman CL, Joo JH et al. 2016. Effects of community-based health worker interventions to improve chronic disease management and care among vulnerable populations: a systematic review. Am. J. Public Health 106:e3–28
    [Google Scholar]
  64. 64.
    Kim KB, Kim MT, Lee HB, Nguyen T, Bone LR, Levine D. 2016. Community health workers versus nurses as counselors or case managers in a self-help diabetes management program. Am. J. Public Health 106:1052–58
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65.
    Kissinger A, Cordova S, Keller A, Mauldon J, Copan L, Rood CS. 2022. Don't change who we are but give us a chance: confronting the potential of community health worker certification for workforce recognition and exclusion. Arch. Public Health 80:61
    [Google Scholar]
  66. 66.
    Koch E. 1998. A summary of the National Community Health Advisor Study: weaving the future Policy Res. Proj., Harrison Inst. Public Law Washington, DC: Prepared for Univ. Ariz., directed by EL Rosenthal, funded by Annie E. Casey Found., Baltimore, MD. https://crh.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/2022-04/CAHsummaryALL.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  67. 67.
    Krieger J, Collier C, Song L, Martin D. 1999. Linking community-based blood pressure measurement to clinical care: a randomized controlled trial of outreach and tracking by community health workers. Am. J. Public Health 89:856–61
    [Google Scholar]
  68. 68.
    Krieger JW, Takaro TK, Song L, Weaver M. 2005. The Seattle-King County Healthy Homes Project: a randomized, controlled trial of a community health worker intervention to decrease exposure to indoor asthma triggers. Am. J. Public Health 95:652–59
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69.
    Lapidos A, Lapedis J, Heisler M. 2019. Realizing the value of community health workers—new opportunities for sustainable financing. N. Engl. J. Med. 380:1990–92
    [Google Scholar]
  70. 70.
    Lau D, Soucie J, Willits J, Scholle SH, Kangovi S et al. 2021. Critical inputs for successful community health worker programs White Pap., Natl. Comm. Quality Assur., Penn Cent. Community Health Work, Philadelphia https://www.ncqa.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Critical-Inputs-for-Successful-CHW-Programs-White-Paper-November2021.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  71. 71.
    Lewin S, Munabi-Babigumira S, Glenton C, Daniels K, Bosch-Capblanch X et al. 2010. Lay health workers in primary and community health care for maternal and child health and the management of infectious diseases. Cochrane Database Systematic Rev 2010:CD004015
    [Google Scholar]
  72. 72.
    Logan RI. 2019. Being a community health worker means advocating: participation, perceptions, and challenges in advocacy. Anthropol. Action 26:9–18
    [Google Scholar]
  73. 73.
    Lohr AM, Ingram M, Nuñez AV, Reinschmidt KM, Carvajal SC. 2018. Community-clinical linkages with community health workers in the United States: a scoping review. Health Promot. Pract. 19:349–60
    [Google Scholar]
  74. 74.
    Love MB, Gardner K, Legion V. 1997. Community health workers: who they are and what they do. Health Educ. Behav. 24:510–22
    [Google Scholar]
  75. 75.
    Luque JS, Logan A, Soulen G, Armeson KE, Garrett DM et al. 2019. Systematic review of mammography screening educational interventions for Hispanic women in the United States. J. Cancer Educ. 34:412–22
    [Google Scholar]
  76. 76.
    Macalino GE, Hogan JW, Mitty JA, Bazerman LB, DeLong AK et al. 2007. A randomized clinical trial of community-based directly observed therapy as an adherence intervention for HAART among substance users. AIDS 21:1473–77
    [Google Scholar]
  77. 77.
    Mack M, Uken R, Powers JV. 2006. People improving the community's health: community health workers as agents of change. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 17:16–25
    [Google Scholar]
  78. 78.
    Malcarney M-B, Pittman P, Quigley L, Horton K, Seiler N. 2017. The changing roles of community health workers. Health Serv. Res. 52:360–82
    [Google Scholar]
  79. 79.
    Marmot M, Wilkinson RG 2005. Social Determinants of Health Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  80. 80.
    Martínez-Donate AP. 2009. Using lay health advisors to promote breast and cervical cancer screening among Latinas: a review. Women's Med. J. 108:259–62
    [Google Scholar]
  81. 81.
    Medicaid CHIP Paym. Access Comm 2022. Medicaid coverage of community health worker services Issue Brief, Medicaid CHIP Paym. Access Comm. Washington, DC: https://www.macpac.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Medicaid-coverage-of-community-health-worker-services-1.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  82. 82.
    Mistry SK, Harris E, Harris M 2021. Community health workers as healthcare navigators in primary care chronic disease management: a systematic review. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 36:2755–71
    [Google Scholar]
  83. 83.
    Navarro AM, Senn KL, McNicholas LJ, Kaplan RM, Roppé B, Campo MC. 1998. Por La Vida model intervention enhances use of cancer screening tests among Latinas. Am. J. Prev. Med. 15:32–41
    [Google Scholar]
  84. 84.
    Nelson KA, Highstein GR, Garbutt J, Trinkaus K, Fisher EB et al. 2011. A randomized controlled trial of parental asthma coaching to improve outcomes among urban minority children. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 165:520–26
    [Google Scholar]
  85. 85.
    Norris SL, Chowdhury FM, Van Le K, Horsley T, Brownstein JN et al. 2006. Effectiveness of community health workers in the care of persons with diabetes. Diabetes Medicine 23:544–56
    [Google Scholar]
  86. 86.
    O'Brien MJ, Halbert CH, Bixby R, Pimentel S, Shea JA. 2010. Community health worker intervention to decrease cervical cancer disparities in Hispanic women. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 25:1186–92
    [Google Scholar]
  87. 87.
    O'Brien MJ, Squires AP, Bixby RA, Larson SC. 2009. Role development of community health workers: an examination of selection and training processes in the intervention literature. Am. J. Prev. Med. 37:S262–69
    [Google Scholar]
  88. 88.
    Olaniran A, Smith H, Unkels R, Bar-Zeev S, van den Broek N. 2017. Who is a community health worker? A systematic review of definitions. Glob. Health Action 10:1272223
    [Google Scholar]
  89. 89.
    Parker EA, Israel BA, Robins TG, Mentz G, Lin X et al. 2008. Evaluation of community action against asthma: a community health worker intervention to improve children's asthma-related health by reducing household environmental triggers for asthma. Health Educ. Behav. 35:376–95
    [Google Scholar]
  90. 90.
    Pérez LM, Martinez J. 2008. Community health workers: social justice and policy advocates for community health and well-being. Am. J. Public Health 98:11–14Correction 2010. Am. J. Public Health 100:1826
    [Google Scholar]
  91. 91.
    Pérez-Escamilla R, Damio G, Chhabra J, Fernandez ML, Segura-Pérez S et al. 2015. Impact of a community health workers-led structured program on blood glucose control among Latinos with type 2 diabetes: the DIALBEST trial. Diabetes Care 38:197–205
    [Google Scholar]
  92. 92.
    Perry HB, Zulliger R, Rogers MM. 2014. Community health workers in low-, middle-, and high-income countries: an overview of their history, recent evolution, and current effectiveness. Annu. Rev. Public Health 35:399–421
    [Google Scholar]
  93. 93.
    Pinto D, Carroll-Scott A, Christmas T, Heidig M, Turchi R. 2020. Community health workers: improving population health through integration into healthcare systems. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 32:674–82
    [Google Scholar]
  94. 94.
    Pittman M, Sunderland A, Broderick A, Barnett K. 2015. Bringing community health workers into the mainstream of U.S. health care Discuss. Pap., Inst. Med. Natl. Acad. Washington, DC: https://nam.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/chwpaper3.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  95. 95.
    Polomoff CM, Bermudez-Millan A, Buckley T, Buxton OM, Feinn R et al. 2022. Pharmacists and community health workers improve medication-related process outcomes among Cambodian Americans with depression and risk for diabetes. J. Am. Pharmacol. Soc. 62:496–504.e1
    [Google Scholar]
  96. 96.
    Postma J, Karr C, Kieckhefer G. 2009. Community health workers and environmental interventions for children with asthma: a systematic review. J. Asthma 46:564–76
    [Google Scholar]
  97. 97.
    Powers BW, Modarai F, Palakodeti S, Sharma M, Mehta N et al. 2020. Impact of complex care management on spending and utilization for high-need, high-cost Medicaid patients. Am. J. Manag. Care 26:e57–63
    [Google Scholar]
  98. 98.
    Prezio EA, Cheng D, Balasubramanian BA, Shuval K, Kendzor DE, Culica D. 2013. Community Diabetes Education (CoDE) for uninsured Mexican Americans: a randomized controlled trial of a culturally tailored diabetes education and management program led by a community health worker. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 100:19–28
    [Google Scholar]
  99. 99.
    Purcell DW, Latka MH, Metsch LR, Latkin CA, Gómez CA et al. 2007. Results from a randomized controlled trial of a peer-mentoring intervention to reduce HIV transmission and increase access to care and adherence to HIV medications among HIV-seropositive injection drug users. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 46:S35–47
    [Google Scholar]
  100. 100.
    Redding S, Conrey E, Porter K, Paulson J, Hughes K, Redding M. 2015. Pathways community care coordination in low birth weight prevention. Matern. Child Health J. 19:643–50
    [Google Scholar]
  101. 101.
    Rodela K, Wiggins N, Maes K, Campos-Dominguez T, Adewumi V et al. 2021. The Community Health Worker (CHW) Common Indicators Project: engaging CHWs in measurement to sustain the profession. Front. Public Health 9:674858
    [Google Scholar]
  102. 102.
    Roman LA, Gardiner JC, Lindsay JK, Moore JS, Luo Z et al. 2009. Alleviating perinatal depressive symptoms and stress: a nurse-community health worker randomized trial. Arch. Womens Ment. Health 12:379–91
    [Google Scholar]
  103. 103.
    Rosenthal EL, Menking P, St. John J 2018. The Community Health Worker Core Consensus (C3) project: a report of the C3 project phase 1 and 2. Together leaning toward the sky Rep., Tex. Tech Univ. Health Sci. Cent., El Paso, TX https://www.c3project.org/_files/ugd/7ec423_2b0893bcc93a422396c744be8c1d54d1.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  104. 104.
    Rush C, Smith DO, Allen C, Mavhungu B 2020. Sustainable financing of community health worker employment Brief, Natl. Assoc. Community Health Work. Boston: https://nachw.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/SustainableFinancingReportOctober2020.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  105. 105.
    Sabo S, Allen CG, Sutkowi K, Wennerstrom A. 2017. Community health workers in the United States: challenges in identifying, surveying, and supporting the workforce. Am. J. Public Health 107:1964–69
    [Google Scholar]
  106. 106.
    Sabo S, Ingram M, Reinschmidt KM, Schachter K, Jacobs L et al. 2013. Predictors and a framework for fostering community advocacy as a community health worker core function to eliminate health disparities. Am. J. Public Health 103:e67–73
    [Google Scholar]
  107. 107.
    Sabo S, Wightman P, McCue K, Butler M, Pilling V et al. 2021. Addressing maternal and child health equity through a community health worker home visiting intervention to reduce low birth weight: retrospective quasi-experimental study of the Arizona Health Start Programme. BMJ Open 11:e045014
    [Google Scholar]
  108. 108.
    Scharff D, Enard KR, Tao D, Strand G, Yakubu R, Cope V. 2022. Community health worker impact on knowledge, antenatal care, and birth outcomes: a systematic review. Matern. Child Health J. 26:79–101
    [Google Scholar]
  109. 109.
    Schmit CD, Washburn DJ, LaFleur M, Martinez D, Thompson E, Callaghan T. 2022. Community health worker sustainability: funding, payment, and reimbursement laws in the United States. Public Health Rep 137:597–603
    [Google Scholar]
  110. 110.
    Scott K, Beckham SW, Gross M, Pariyo G, Rao KD et al. 2018. What do we know about community-based health worker programs? A systematic review of existing reviews on community health workers. Human Resour. Health 16:39
    [Google Scholar]
  111. 111.
    Shah M, Heisler M, Davis M. 2014. Community health workers and the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: an opportunity for a research, advocacy, and policy agenda. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 25:17–24
    [Google Scholar]
  112. 112.
    Simoni JM, Pantalone DW, Plummer MD, Huang B. 2007. A randomized controlled trial of a peer support intervention targeting antiretroviral medication adherence and depressive symptomatology in HIV-positive men and women. Health Psychol 26:488–95
    [Google Scholar]
  113. 113.
    Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, eds. 2003. Unequal treatment: confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care Rep., Inst. Med. Washington, DC: https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/12875/unequal-treatment-confronting-racial-and-ethnic-disparities-in-health-care
    [Google Scholar]
  114. 114.
    Spalluto LB, Audet CM, Murry VM, Barajas CP, Beard KR et al. 2019. Group versus individual educational sessions with a Promotora and Hispanic/Latina women's satisfaction with care in the screening mammography setting: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Roentgenol. 213:1029–36
    [Google Scholar]
  115. 115.
    Spencer MS, Rosland AM, Kieffer EC, Sinco BR, Valerio M et al. 2011. Effectiveness of a community health worker intervention among African American and Latino adults with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Public Health 101:2253–60
    [Google Scholar]
  116. 116.
    Spiro A, Oo SA, Marable D, Collins JP. 2012. A unique model of the community health worker: the MGH Chelsea community health improvement team. Fam. Community Health 35:147–60
    [Google Scholar]
  117. 117.
    Tikkanen R, Abrams MK. 2020. U.S. health care from a global perspective, 2019: higher spending, worse outcomes? Issue Brief, Commonw. Fund New York: https://doi.org/10.26099/7avy-fc29
    [Google Scholar]
  118. 118.
    Valeriani G, Sarajlic Vukovic I, Bersani FS, Sadeghzadeh Diman A, Ghorbani A, Mollica R 2022. Tackling ethnic health disparities through community health worker programs: a scoping review on their utilization during the COVID-19 outbreak. Popul. Health Manag. 25:517–26
    [Google Scholar]
  119. 119.
    Vasan A, Harris A, Kangovi S, Mahoney KB. 2021. Getting proximate—flipping the mentorship paradigm to promote health equity. N. Engl. J. Med. 385:e89
    [Google Scholar]
  120. 120.
    Vasan A, Morgan JW, Mitra N, Xu C, Long JA et al. 2020. Effects of a standardized community health worker intervention on hospitalization among disadvantaged patients with multiple chronic conditions: a pooled analysis of three clinical trials. Health Serv. Res. 55:894–901
    [Google Scholar]
  121. 121.
    Viswanathan M, Kraschnewski JL, Nishikawa B, Morgan LC, Honeycutt AA et al. 2010. Outcomes and costs of community health worker interventions: a systematic review. Med. Care 48:792–808
    [Google Scholar]
  122. 122.
    Wang EA, Hong CS, Shavit S, Sanders R, Kessell E, Kushel MB. 2012. Engaging individuals recently released from prison into primary care: a randomized trial. Am. J. Public Health 102:e22–29
    [Google Scholar]
  123. 123.
    Wells KJ, Luque JS, Miladinovic B, Vargas N, Asvat Y et al. 2011. Do community health worker interventions improve rates of screening mammography in the United States? A systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 20:1580–98
    [Google Scholar]
  124. 124.
    Wennerstrom A, Sugarman M, Rush C, Barbero C, Jayapaul-Philip B et al. 2021.. “ Nothing about us without us”: insights from state-level efforts to implement community health worker certification. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 32:892–909
    [Google Scholar]
  125. 125.
    WHO (World Health Organ.) 2018. WHO guideline on health policy and system support to optimize community health worker programmes Rep., WHO, Geneva https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/275474/9789241550369-eng.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  126. 126.
    Witmer A, Seifer SD, Finocchio L, Leslie J, O'Neil EH 1995. Community health workers: integral members of the health care work force. Am. J. Public Health 85:1055–58
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-071521-031648
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-071521-031648
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error