1932

Abstract

Poverty has been shown to negatively influence child health and development along a number of dimensions. For example, poverty–net of a variety of potentially confounding factors—is associated with increased neonatal and post-neonatal mortality rates, greater risk of injuries resulting from accidents or physical abuse/neglect, higher risk for asthma, and lower developmental scores in a range of tests at multiple ages.

Despite the extensive literature available that addresses the relationship between poverty and child health and development, as yet there is no consensus on how poverty should be operationalized to reflect its dynamic nature. Perhaps more important is the lack of agreement on the set of controls that should be included in the modeling of this relationship in order to determine the “true” or net effect of poverty, independent of its cofactors. In this paper, we suggest a general model that should be adhered to when investigating the effects of poverty on children. We propose a standard set of controls and various measures of poverty that should be incorporated in any study, when possible.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.18.1.463
1997-05-01
2024-10-08
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/18/1/annurev.publhealth.18.1.463.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.18.1.463&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aber JL. 1994. Poverty, violence, and child development: untangling family and community level effects. In Threats to Optimal Development: Integrating Biological, Psychological, and Social Risk Factors, ed. CA Nelson 27229–72 Minn. Symp. Child Psychol. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum [Google Scholar]
  2. Aber JL, Brooks-Gunn J, Gephart M. 1997. The effects of neighborhoods on children, youth and families: a developmental contextual framework.. See Ref. 27 In press
  3. Andrews MW, Rosenblum LA. 1991. Attachment in monkey infants raised in variable- and low-demand environments.. Child Dev. 62:686–93 [Google Scholar]
  4. Anonymous 1994. Active and passive tobacco exposure: a serious pediatric health problem. A statement from the Committee on Atherosclerosis and Hypertension in Children, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association.. Circulation 90:2581–90 [Google Scholar]
  5. Bakketeig LS, Jacobsen G, Hoffman HJ, Lindmark G, Bergsjo P. et al. 1993. Pre- pregnancy risk factors of small-for-gestational age births among parous women in Scandinavia.. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 72:273–79 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bane MJ, Ellwood DT. 1989. One fifth of the nation's children: Why are they poor?. Science 245:1047–53 [Google Scholar]
  7. Barker DJ. 1994. Outcome of low birthweight.. Horm. Res. 42:223–30 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bradley RH, Whiteside L, Mundfrom DJ, Casey PH, Kehheher KJ, Pope SK. 1994. Early indications of resilience and their relation to experiences in the home environments of low birthweight, premature children living in poverty.. Child Dev. 65:346–66 [Google Scholar]
  9. Breslau N, DelDotto JE, Brown GG, Kumar S, Ezhuthachan S. et al. 1994. A gradient relationship between low birth weight and IQ at age 6 years.. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 148:377–83 [Google Scholar]
  10. Brody DJ, Pirkle JL, Kramer RA, Flegal KM, Matte TD. et al. 1994. Blood lead levels in the U.S. population.. JAMA 272:277–83 [Google Scholar]
  11. Bronfenbrenner U. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  12. Brooks-Gunn J, Klebanov P, Duncan GJ. 1996. Ethnic differences in children's intelligence test scores: role of economic deprivation, home environment, and maternal characteristics.. Child Dev. 67:396–408 [Google Scholar]
  13. Catalano R, Serxner S. 1992. The effect of ambient threats to employment on low birthweight.. J. Health Soc. Behav. 33:363–77 [Google Scholar]
  14. Center for Health Economics Research 1993. Access to Health Care: Key Indicators for Policy. Waltham, MA: Cent. Health Econ. Res [Google Scholar]
  15. Coll CTG. 1990. Developmental outcome of minority infants: a process-oriented look into our beginnings.. Child Dev. 61:270–89 [Google Scholar]
  16. Collins JW Jr, Shay DK. 1994. Prevalence of low birthweight among Hispanic infants with United States-born and foreign-born mothers: the effect of urban poverty.. Am. J. Epidemiol. 139:184–92 [Google Scholar]
  17. Committee on National Statistics 1995. Measuring poverty: a new approach. A report from the NAS panel on poverty and family assistance: concepts, information needs, and measurement methods. Rep. Comm. Natl. Stat., Panel Poverty Fam. Assist. Washington, DC: Natl. Assoc. Stat [Google Scholar]
  18. Conger RD, Conger KJ, Elder GH, Lorenz FO, Simons RL, Whitbeck LB. 1992. A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys.. Child Dev. 63:526–41 [Google Scholar]
  19. Conger RD, Ge X, Elder GH, Lorenz FO, Simons RL. 1994. Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents.. Child Dev. 65:541–61 [Google Scholar]
  20. Conley D. 1996. Being black, living in the red: wealth and the cycle of racial inequality.. PhD thesis, Columbia Univ., New York
  21. Corcoran M, Duncan GJ, Gurin G, Gurin P. 1985. Myth and reality: the causes and persistence of poverty.. J Policy Anal. Manage. 4:516–36 [Google Scholar]
  22. Cornelius MD, Taylor PM, Geva D, Day NL. 1995. Prenatal tobacco and marijuana use among adolescents: effects on offspring gestational age, growth, and morphology.. Pediatrics 95:738–43 [Google Scholar]
  23. Coultas DB, Gong H, Grad R, Handler A, McCurdy SA. et al. 1994. Respiratory diseases in minorities of the United States.. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care. Med. 150:290 [Google Scholar]
  24. Davis RA. 1988. Adolescent pregnancy and infant mortality: isolating the effects of race.. Adolescence 23:899–907 [Google Scholar]
  25. Dobson B. 1994. A WIC primer.. J. Hum. Lactation 10:199–202 [Google Scholar]
  26. Dombrowski MP, Wolfe HM, Brans YW, Saleh AA, Sokol RJ. 1992. Neonatal morphometry. Relation to obstetric, pediatric, and menstrual estimates of gestational age.. Am. J. Dis. Child. 146:852–56 [Google Scholar]
  27. Duncan GJ, Aber JL. 1996. Neighborhood conditions and structure.. In Neighborhood Poverty: Context and Consequences for Child and Adolescent Development, ed. GJ Duncan, J Brooks-Gunn, JL Aber. New York: Russell Sage. In press
  28. Duncan GJ, Brooks-Gunn J, Klebanov PK. 1994. Economic deprivation and early childhood development.. Child Dev. 65:296–318 [Google Scholar]
  29. Duncan GJ, Hill MS, Hoffman SD. 1988. Welfare dependence within and across generations.. Science 239:467–71 [Google Scholar]
  30. Duncan GJ, Rodgers W. 1988. Has children's poverty become more persistent?. Am. Soc. Rev. 56:538–50 [Google Scholar]
  31. Duncan GJ, Yeung W-J, Brooks-Gunn J, Smith J. 1996. Does childhood poverty affect the life chances of children?. Presented at Annu. Meet. Popul. Assoc. Am., May 9
  32. Elder GH, Van Nguyen T, Caspi A. 1995. Linking family hardship to children's lives.. Child Dev. 56:361–75 [Google Scholar]
  33. Ernst P, Demissie K, Joseph L, Locher U, Becklake MR. 1995. Socioeconomic status and indicators of asthma in children.. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152:570–75 [Google Scholar]
  34. Escobar GJ, Littenberg B, Petitti DB. 1991. Outcome among surviving very low birthweight infants: a meta-analysis.. Arch. Dis. Child. 66:204–11 [Google Scholar]
  35. Field TM, Widmayer SM. 1981. Mother-infant interactions among lower SES black, Cuban, Puerto Rican, and South American immigrants.. In Culture and Early Interactions, ed. TM Field, AM Sostck, P Vietze, PH Leiderman. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
  36. Gennaro S. 1996. Family response to the low birthweight infant.. Nurs. Clin. North Am. 31:341–50 [Google Scholar]
  37. Gortmaker SL. 1979. Poverty and infant mortality in the United States.. Am. Soc. Rev. 44:280–97 [Google Scholar]
  38. Hampton RL, Newberger EH. 1985. Child abuse incidence and reporting by hospitals: significance of severity, class and race.. Am. J. Public Health 75:56–60 [Google Scholar]
  39. Hanson TL, McLanahan A, Thomson E. 1995. Economic resources, parental practices, and child well-being.. Presented at Conf. Consequences Grow. Up Poor. Sponsored by Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, DC, Feb
  40. Hashima PY, Amato PR. 1994. Poverty, social support and parental behavior.. Child Dev. 65:394–403 [Google Scholar]
  41. Haveman R. 1992. Changing the poverty measure: pitfalls and potential gains.. FOCUS 13:24–29 [Google Scholar]
  42. Haveman R. 1993. Changing the poverty measure: pitfalls and potential gains.. Brookings Rev. 11:24–27 [Google Scholar]
  43. Homer CJ, Berresford SA, James SA, Siegel E. 1990. Work-related physical exertion and risk of preterm, low birthweight delivery.. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 4:161–74 [Google Scholar]
  44. Homer CJ, James SA, Siegel E. 1990. Work-related psychosocial stress and risk of preterm low birthweight delivery.. Am. J. Public Health 80:173–77 [Google Scholar]
  45. Horowitz B, Wolock I. 1981. Material deprivation, child maltreatment, and agency interventions among poor families. In The Social Context of Child Abuse and Neglect, ed. L Pelton 137–84 New York: Hum. Sci. Press [Google Scholar]
  46. Joint Economic Committee 1989. Washington DC: US GPO
  47. Klebanov PK, Brooks-Gunn J, McCormick MC. 1994. Classroom behavior of very low birth weight elementary school children.. Pediatrics 94:700–8 [Google Scholar]
  48. Korenman S, Miller JE, Sjaastad JE. 1995. Long-term poverty and child development in the United States: results from the NLSY.. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 17:127–55 [Google Scholar]
  49. Kotch JB, Browne DC, Ringwalt CL, Stewart PW, Ruina E. et al. 1995. Risk of child abuse or neglect in a cohort of low-income children.. Child Abuse Neglect 19:1115–30 [Google Scholar]
  50. Laosa LM. 1980. Maternal teaching strategies in Chicano and Anglo-American families: the influence of culture and education on maternal behavior.. Child Dev. 49:1129–35 [Google Scholar]
  51. Lempers JD, Clark-Lempers D, Simons RL. 1989. Economic hardship, parenting, and distress in adolescence.. Child Dev. 60:25–39 [Google Scholar]
  52. Loeber R, Stouthamer-Loeber M. 1986. Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. In Crime and Justice, ed. M Tonry, N Morris 729–149 Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  53. Luke B, Williams C, Minogue J, Keith L. 1993. The changing pattern of infant mortality in the U.S.: the role of prenatal factors and their obstetrical implications.. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 40:199–212 [Google Scholar]
  54. Mare RD. 1982. Socio-economic status and child mortality.. Am. J. Public Health 72:539–47 [Google Scholar]
  55. McGaughey PJ, Starfield B, Alexander C, Ensminger ME. 1991. Social environment and vulnerability of low birth weight children: a social-epidemiological perspective.. Pediatrics 88:943–53 [Google Scholar]
  56. McLeod JD, Shanahan MJ. 1993. Poverty, parenting and children's mental health.. Am. Soc. Rev. 58:351–66 [Google Scholar]
  57. McLoyd VC, Jayaratne TE, Ceballo R, Borquez J. 1994. Unemployment and work interruption among African American single mothers: effects on parenting and adolescent socioemotional functioning.. Child Dev. 65:562–89 [Google Scholar]
  58. Michaelis R, Asenbauer C, Buchwald-Senal M, Haas G, Krageboh-Mann I. 1993. Transitory neurological findings in a population of at risk infants.. Early Hum. Dev. 34:143–53 [Google Scholar]
  59. National Center for Children in Poverty 1996. One in Four: America's Youngest Poor. New York: Columbia Sch. Public Health, Natl. Cent. Child. Poverty [Google Scholar]
  60. Newacheck PW, Halfon N. 1986. Access to ambulatory care services for economically disadvantaged children.. Pediatrics 78:813–19 [Google Scholar]
  61. Orshansky M. 1993. Measuring poverty.. J. Am. Public Welfare Assoc. 51:27–28 [Google Scholar]
  62. Overspect MD, Moss AJ. 1991. Children's exposure to environmental cigarette smoke before and after birth.. Advanced Data No. 202. Vital Health Stat. Natl. Cent. Health Stat., US DHHS
  63. Partin M, Palloni A. 1995. Accounting for the recent increases in low birth weight among African Americans.. FOCUS 16:33–37 [Google Scholar]
  64. Perrin JM, Homer CJ, Berwick DM. et al. 1989. Variations in rates of hospitalization of children in three urban communities.. N. Engl. J. Med. 320:1183–87 [Google Scholar]
  65. Peterson C, Maier SF, Seligman MEP. 1993. Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control. New York: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  66. Quah R, Stark A, Meigs JW. 1982. Children blood levels in New Haven: a population-based information demographic profile.. Environ. Health Perspect. 5:128–34 [Google Scholar]
  67. Robertson CM, Hrynchyshyn GJ, Etches PC, Pain KS. 1992. Population-based study of the incidence, complexity, and severity of neurologic disability among survivors weighing 500 through 1250 grams at birth: a comparison of two birth cohorts.. Pediatrics 990:750–55 [Google Scholar]
  68. Ruggles P. 1992. Measuring poverty.. FOCUS 14:1–5 [Google Scholar]
  69. Sampson R, Laub JH. 1994. Urban poverty and the family context of delinquency: a new look at structure and process in a classic study.. Child Dev. 65:523–40 [Google Scholar]
  70. Seidman DS, Laor A, Gale R, Stevenson DK, Mashiach S, Danon YL. 1992. Catch-up head growth and motor performance in very-low-birthweight infants.. Obstet. Gynecol. 79:543–46 [Google Scholar]
  71. Simon NP, Brady NR, Stafford RL. 1993. Catch-up head growth and motor performance in very-low-birthweight infants.. Clin. Pediatr. 32:405–11 [Google Scholar]
  72. Singh GK, Kochanek KD, MacDorman MF. 1996. Advance report of final mortality statistics, 1994.. Monthly Vital Stat. Rep. 45(3), suppl. Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Cen. Health Stat
  73. Smith SS, Dixon RG. 1995. Literacy concepts of low- and middle-class four-year-olds entering preschool.. J. Educ. Res. 88:243–53 [Google Scholar]
  74. Solon G. 1992. Intergenerational income mobility in the United States.. Am. Econ. Rev. 6:393–408 [Google Scholar]
  75. Spilerman SN, Seymyonov M, Lewin-Epstein N. 1993. Wealth, intergenerational transfers and life chances. In Social Theory and Social Policy, ed. A Sorensen, S Spilerman 165–86 New York: Praeger [Google Scholar]
  76. St. Peter RF, Newacheck PW, Halfon N. 1992. Access to care for poor children: separate and unequal?. JAMA 267:2760–64 [Google Scholar]
  77. Starfield B. 1991. Childhood morbidity: comparisons, clusters, and trends.. Pediatrics 88:519–26 [Google Scholar]
  78. Starfield B, Shapiro S, Weiss J, Liang K-Y, Ra K. et al. 1991. Race, family income, and low birth weight.. Am. J. Epidemiol. 134:1167–74 [Google Scholar]
  79. Steward MS, Steward DS. 1974. Effect of social distance on teaching strategies of Anglo-American and Mexican-American mothers.. Dev. Psychol. 10:797–807 [Google Scholar]
  80. Stockwell EG, Goza FW, Roach JL. 1995. The relationship between socioeconomic status and infant mortality in a metropolitan aggregate, 1989–1991.. Sociol. Forum 10:297–308 [Google Scholar]
  81. Strobino DM, Ensminger ME, Nanda J, Kim YJ. 1992. Young motherhood and infant hospitalization during the first year of life.. J. Adolesc. Health 13:553–60 [Google Scholar]
  82. Teberg AJ, Pena I, Finello K, Aguilar T, Hodgeman JE. 1991. Prediction of neurodevelopmental outcome in infants with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia.. Am. J. Med. Sci. 301:369–74 [Google Scholar]
  83. Tresserras R, Canela J, Alvarez J, Sentis J, Salleras L. 1992. Infant mortality, per capita income, and adult illiteracy: an ecological approach.. Am. J. Public Health 82:435–38 [Google Scholar]
  84. US Census Bureau 1984. Survey of Income and Program Participation. Washington, DC: US Census Bur [Google Scholar]
  85. US Dep. Manage 1996. Fair Market Rates for the Sectors of Money Assistance Pay Program–Fiscal Year 1996.. Fed. Regist. 61(35, pt. II):6690–747 Feb. 21 [Google Scholar]
  86. Vagero D, Illsley R. 1995. Explaining health inequalities: beyond Black and Barker.. Eur. Soc. Rev. 11:219–41 [Google Scholar]
  87. Wheaton B. 1990. Life transitions, role histories and mental health.. Am. Soc. Rev. 55:209–23 [Google Scholar]
  88. Wise PH, Kotelchuck M, Wilson ML, Mills M. 1985. Racial and socioeconomic disparities in childhood mortality in Boston.. N. Engl. J. Med. 313:360–66 [Google Scholar]
  89. Wise PH, Meyers A. 1988. Poverty and child health.. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 35:1169–86 [Google Scholar]
  90. Wood D, Donald-Sherbourne C, Halfon N, Tucker MB, Ortiz V. et al. 1995. Factors related to immunization status among inner-city Latino and African-American preschoolers.. Pediatrics 96:295–301 [Google Scholar]
  91. Wood DL, Valdez RB, Hayashi T, Shen A. 1990. Health of homeless children and housed, poor children.. Pediatrics 86:858–66 [Google Scholar]
  92. Zeskind PS. 1983. Cross-cultural differences in maternal perceptions of cries of low- and high-risk infants.. Child Dev. 54:1119–28 [Google Scholar]
  93. Zill N. 1988. Behavior, achievement, and health problems among children in step-families: findings from a national survey of child health.. In Impact of Divorce, Single Parenting, and Step Parenting on Children, ed. EM Hetherington, JD Arasteh. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
  94. Zill N, Moore K, Smith E, Stief T, Coiro MJ. 1991. The Life Circumstances and Development of Children in Welfare Families: A Profile Based on National Survey Data. Washington, DC: Child Trends [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.18.1.463
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.18.1.463
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error