Annual Review of Nutrition - Volume 24, 2004

Package size, plate shape, lighting, socializing, and variety are only a few of the environmental factors that can influence the consumption volume of food far more than most people realize. Although such environmental factors appear unrelated, they generally influence consumption volume by inhibiting consumption monitoring and by suggesting alternative consumption norms. For researchers, this review suggests that redirecting the focus of investigations to the psychological mechanisms behind consumption will raise the profile and impact of research. For health professionals, this review underscores how small structural changes in personal environments can reduce the unknowing overconsumption of food.

Many proteins present on cell surfaces and located in extracellular fluids contain cysteine and methionine residues that are subject to oxidation. These proteins, which include transporters, receptors, and enzymes, respond to variations in the extracellular thiol/disulfide redox environment. Changes in activity of these proteins can alter the ability of organs to function normally and influence processes such as nutritional absorption, secretory function, neurotransmission, and susceptibility to toxicants. In addition, extracellular redox can regulate tissue homeostasis through effects on cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and immune function. Consequently, extracellular redox can have important influences on health status and disease states and thus could be a target for nutritional interventions.

Identifying bioactive compounds and establishing their health effects are active areas of scientific inquiry. There are exciting prospects that select bioactive compounds will reduce the risk of many diseases, including chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease. Recent findings have established that cardiovascular disease is a disease of inflammation, and consequently is amenable to intervention via molecules that have anti-inflammatory effects. In addition, research demonstrating adverse effects of oxidants on atherogenesis raises the possibility that antioxidants can confer cardioprotective effects. This review provides an overview of research approaches that can be used to unravel the biology and health effects of bioactive compounds. Because of the number of bioactive compounds and the diversity of likely biological effects, numerous and diverse experimental approaches must be taken to increase our understanding of the biology of bioactive compounds. Recognizing the complexity of this biology, sophisticated experimental designs and analytical methodologies must be employed to advance the field. The discovery of novel health effects of bioactive compounds will provide the scientific basis for future efforts to use biotechnology to modify/fortify foods and food components as a means to improve public health.

Tissue concentrations of both homocysteine (Hcy) and cysteine (Cys) are maintained at low levels by regulated production and efficient removal of these thiols. The regulation of the metabolism of methionine and Cys is discussed from the standpoint of maintaining low levels of Hcy and Cys while, at the same time, ensuring an adequate supply of these thiols for their essential functions. S-Adenosylmethionine coordinately regulates the flux through remethylation and transsulfuration, and glycine N-methyltransferase regulates flux through transmethylation and hence the S-adenosylmethionine/S-adenosylhomocysteine ratio. Cystathionine β-synthase activity is also regulated in response to the redox environment, and transcription of the gene is hormonally regulated in response to fuel supply (insulin, glucagon, and glucocorticoids). The H2S-producing capacity of cystathionine γ-lyase may be regulated in response to nitric oxide. Cys is substrate for a variety of anabolic and catabolic enzymes. Its concentration is regulated primarily by hepatic Cys dioxygenase; the level of Cys dioxygenase is upregulated in a Cys-responsive manner via a decrease in the rate of polyubiquitination and, hence, degradation by the 26S proteasome.

Development of bioinformatics tools provided researchers with the ability to identify full sets of trace element–containing proteins in organisms for which complete genomic sequences are available. Recently, independent bioinformatics methods were used to identify all, or almost all, genes encoding selenocysteine-containing proteins in human, mouse, and Drosophila genomes, characterizing entire selenoproteomes in these organisms. It also should be possible to search for entire sets of other trace element–associated proteins, such as metal-containing proteins, although methods for their identification are still in development.

Epidemiological and clinical studies have established that the n-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid (LA), and the n-3 fatty acids, linolenic acid (LNA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) collectively protect against coronary heart disease (CHD). LA is the major dietary fatty acid regulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-C metabolism by downregulating LDL-C production and enhancing its clearance. Further, the available mass of LA is a critical factor determining the hyperlipemic effects of other dietary fat components, such as saturated and trans fatty acids, as well as cholesterol. By contrast, n-3 fatty acids, especially EPA and DHA, are potent antiarryhthmic agents. EPA and DHA also improve vascular endothelial function and help lower blood pressure, platelet sensitivity, and the serum triglyceride level. The distinct functions of these two families make the balance between dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids an important consideration influencing cardiovascular health. Based on published literature describing practical dietary intakes, we suggest that consumption of ∼6% en LA, 0.75% en LNA, and 0.25% en EPA + DHA represents adequate and achievable intakes for most healthy adults. This corresponds to an n-6/n-3 ratio of ∼6:1. However, the absolute mass of essential fatty acids consumed, rather than their n-6/n-3 ratio, should be the first consideration when contemplating lifelong dietary habits affecting cardiovascular benefit from their intake.

The chapter reviews the historical development and interactions of U.S. agricultural, economic, nutrition, and development policies relating to the creation of the commercial environment of social, economic, technological, and political factors that favor the development of American obesity.