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- Volume 2, 2015
Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior - Volume 2, 2015
Volume 2, 2015
- Preface
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Organizational Psychology Then and Now: Some Observations
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 1–19More LessA comparison is made between the field of organizational psychology as I saw it in 1965 and how I see it today. Many issues remain the same, but the field is more differentiated, fragmented, and individualized than ever, despite culture, especially national culture, having become a big topic. The field is much larger and has spawned a whole applied field of organization development and new methods of experiential learning. The biggest change has been the decline of work on group dynamics and group interventions reflecting Western cultures of individualism. At the same time, task complexity, interdependency, multiculturalism, social responsibility, and new forms of organization have become new challenges for consultants and researchers because they require relationship building, coordination, and group work.
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Group Affect
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 21–46More LessOver two decades of research has indicated that group affect is an important factor that shapes group processes and outcomes. We review and synthesize research on group affect, encompassing trait affect, moods, and emotions at a collective level in purposive teams. We begin by defining group affect and examining four major types of collective affective constructs: (a) convergence in group affect; (b) affective diversity, that is, divergence in group affect; (c) emotional culture; and (d) group affect as a dynamic process that changes over time. We describe the nomological network of group affect, examining both its group-level antecedents and group-level consequences. Antecedents include group leadership, group member attributes, and interactions between and relationships among group members. Consequences of group affect include attitudes about the group and group-level cooperation and conflict, creativity, decision making, and performance. We close by discussing current research knowns, research needs, and what lies on the conceptual and methodological frontiers of this domain.
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The Modeling and Assessment of Work Performance
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 47–74More LessIndividual work role performance drives the entire economy. It is organizational psychology and organizational behavior’s (OP/OB’s) most crucial dependent variable. In this review, alternative specifications for the definition and latent structure of individual performance are reviewed and summarized. Setting aside differences in terminology, the alternatives are remarkably similar. The Campbell (2012) model is offered as a synthesized description of the content of the latent structure. Issues pertaining to performance dynamics are then reviewed, along with the role played by individual adaptability to changing performance requirements. Using the synthesized model of the latent content structure and dynamics of performance as a backdrop, issues pertaining to the assessment of performance are summarized. The alternative goals of performance assessment, general measurement issues, and the construct validity of specific methods (e.g., ratings, simulations) are reviewed and described. Cross-cultural issues and future research needs are noted.
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Justice, Fairness, and Employee Reactions
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 75–99More LessOf all the issues that employees consider in organizational life, justice and fairness are among the most salient. Justice reflects the perceived adherence to rules that represent appropriateness in decision contexts (e.g., equity, consistency, respect, truthfulness). Fairness reflects a more global perception of appropriateness that lies downstream of justice. Our review integrates justice theories (fairness heuristic theory, the relational model, the group engagement model, fairness theory, deonance theory, uncertainty management theory) and broader theories (social exchange theory, affective events theory) to examine three questions: (a) Why do employees think about justice issues in the first place? (b) how do employees form fairness perceptions? and (c) how do employees react to those perceptions? We close by describing how justice and fairness can be managed in organizations, especially given new technological trends in how people work.
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Methodological and Substantive Issues in Conducting Multinational and Cross-Cultural Research
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 101–131More LessThe rising importance of multinational and cross-cultural research has spurred the development of methodologies to adequately study human phenomena in organizations across culture and place. Disentangling culture and location from potential confounding variables is an underlying issue in conducting comparative studies. Research designs allow comparisons of countries and culture groups, as well as isolate the potential impact of cultural variables. Sampling methods must be chosen to control for differences that confound the cultural variables of interest with other characteristics of samples. Translation and back-translation are necessary when studies cross linguistic boundaries. Measures that compare cultural and national groups should be checked for measurement equivalence/invariance using one or more tools based on confirmatory factor analysis or item response theory. Some sources of invariance can be found in culturally determined response biases. In the same investigation, it is advisable to pair qualitative methods, which help characterize culture-specific factors, with quantitative methods, which help disentangle their confounds.
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Leadership Development: An Outcome-Oriented Review Based on Time and Levels of Analyses
David V. Day, and Lisa DragoniVol. 2 (2015), pp. 133–156More LessContemporary organizations face critical challenges associated with possessing and leveraging leadership capabilities. Researchers studying leadership development have responded to this practical imperative, although research on the topic is still in the early stages of scientific development. In assessing the state of the science in leadership development, we review an array of theoretical and research approaches with the goal of stimulating thoughtful intellectual discourse regarding fundamental questions, such as, what is leadership, and what is development. We highlight the breadth of this phenomenon by reviewing theory and research that has considered the development of leadership in individuals, dyads, and teams/organizations. Additionally, we describe a set of proximal and distal signs that indicate leadership may be developing, and we promote experiences, interventions, and interactions as factors that enhance the leadership development process.
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Beyond Lewin: Toward a Temporal Approximation of Organization Development and Change
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 157–182More LessWe describe the new dialogic organization development (OD) fleshed out by Bushe & Marshak (2009). In comparing this approach with the old diagnostic OD, we explore the limitations of Lewin’s (1947) unfreeze-change-freeze model for depicting organizational change over time. We develop an approach that more fully approximates an adequate temporal model of change by incorporating attention to sequence, timing, pacing, rhythm, and polyphonic dimensions present in change. We use this approach to explore longitudinally how the new OD came to be, as well as how it is now entrained with the old OD, and show that our approach reveals a number of dimensions of change that are masked by Lewin’s model. We illustrate the use of our approach beyond OD to depict the temporal dimensions of Tushman & Romanelli’s (1985) model of convergence and reorientation. Finally, we suggest next steps for theory, research, and practice.
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Beyond the Big Five: New Directions for Personality Research and Practice in Organizations
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 183–209More LessIndustrial and organizational personality researchers and practitioners contend with ever-changing requirements of the workplace, and therefore, it is important to reevaluate and innovate with respect to useful organizational research. Much research evidence documents the importance of personality variables in determining behavior and performance in work settings, yet further advances in understanding and predicting work outcomes will depend upon more sophisticated taxonomic structures of personality, better criterion constructs and measurement, and different validation strategies. We describe the logic, strengths, and weaknesses of four taxonomic approaches to the structure of personality—the Five-Factor Model, HEXACO model, circumplex models, and nomological-web clustering—and how each limits or facilitates future developments in theory and practice. We describe how improved measurement and modeling approaches to personality, along with advances in synthetic validation efforts, will enable greater accuracy in our theories, hypotheses, and prediction of work outcomes.
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Corporate Social Responsibility: Psychological, Person-Centric, and Progressing
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 211–236More LessMicro-CSR, or the psychological study of how corporate social responsibility (CSR) affects individuals, is gaining significant attention within industrial/organizational psychology and organizational behavior (IOOB). Although this research has the potential to offer insight into how CSR impacts individuals representing various stakeholder groups (e.g., consumers, shareholders), to date the term micro-CSR has generally been limited to describing research on employee responses to CSR initiatives. We argue that the taxonomic conscription of micro-CSR to employees alone exacerbates current friction within the field pertaining to the effects, utility, and importance of CSR. This review synthesizes the accruing research on employee-focused micro-CSR and summarizes current theories while addressing some of the concerns regarding CSR, particularly as it applies to other stakeholder groups. It repositions the study of CSR toward its ostensible ultimate purpose, reducing human suffering, and in doing so draws together theories and evidence focused on why CSR matters to employees and why the study of another stakeholder group—CSR recipients—is essential toward a valid understanding of the true micro-CSR experience (of employees, among others).
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Time in Individual-Level Organizational Studies: What Is It, How Is It Used, and Why Isn’t It Exploited More Often?
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 237–260More LessTime is an important concern in organizational science, yet we lack a systematic review of research on time within individual-level studies. Following a brief introduction, we consider conceptual ideas about time and elaborate on why temporal factors are important for micro-organizational studies. Then, in two sections—one devoted to time-related constructs and the other to the experience of time as a within-person phenomenon—we selectively review both theoretical and empirical studies. On the basis of this review, we note which topics have received more or less attention to inform our evaluation of the current state of research on time. Finally, we develop an agenda for future research to help move micro-organizational research to a completely temporal view.
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Dynamics of Well-Being
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 261–293More LessWell-being refers to a person’s hedonic experience of feeling good and to the eudaimonic experience of fulfillment and purpose. Employee well-being is influenced by experiences at work and, in turn, has an effect on behavior at work such as task performance and other on-the-job behaviors. In this article, I describe well-being as a dynamic construct that changes over time and fluctuates within a person. I review and integrate longitudinal, experience-sampling, and related research on well-being change and variability. I address the role of job stressors, job resources, the interpersonal environment, personal resources, the work–home interface, and performance. I discuss questions of affect symmetry, homology of the between-person and within-person level, and reciprocity between well-being and other variables. The article concludes with suggestions for future research.
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Low-Fidelity Simulations
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 295–322More LessLow-fidelity simulations, which combine closed-ended response options with realistic depictions of key job tasks, have grown in popularity for several practical reasons. Research into low-fidelity simulations, which has focused primarily on text-based situational judgment tests (SJTs), has shown that such measures (a) can predict a wide range of criteria, doing so with moderate adverse impact, depending on the construct saturation of the items, (b) are no more susceptible to coaching/cheating/retesting effects than many other forms of assessment and far less susceptible than some, and (c) continue to struggle when used to measure a single construct. Practice, by contrast, has moved well beyond text-based SJTs to include multimedia SJTs, online assessment center exercises, and game-like assessments. Because these are perceived more favorably by applicants, the same research dedicated to text-based SJTs is needed to guide development of these newer forms of low-fidelity simulation.
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Emotional Labor at a Crossroads: Where Do We Go from Here?
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 323–349More LessThree decades after its introduction as a concept, emotional labor—regulating emotions as part of the work role—is fully on the map in organizational behavior and organizational psychology. As research has accelerated, roadblocks, such as fuzzy construct conceptualizations, assumed but untested processes, and methodological stagnation, have emerged. To provide direction to new scholars and suggestions to seasoned emotional labor researchers, we review theoretical perspectives and evidence for emotional labor and its (a) construct development and measurement, (b) chronic and momentary determinants, (c) prediction of employee well-being, and (d) influence on organizational performance. On this path, we introduce emotional labor as a dynamic integration of three components (i.e., emotional requirements, emotion regulation, and emotion performance), interpret personal and organizational moderators, and point to innovative new methodological approaches. Overall, we provide a new road map to jump-start the field in exciting new directions.
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Supporting the Aging Workforce: A Review and Recommendations for Workplace Intervention Research
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 351–381More LessThe workforce in most industrialized countries is aging and becoming more age-diverse, and this trend is expected to continue throughout the twenty-first century. Although there has been an increased interest in research on age differences at work, few studies have examined actual interventions designed to support workers at different points across the life span. In this article, we review the literature related to aging at work, including physical, cognitive, personality, and motivational changes; life-span development theories; age stereotyping; age diversity; and work–life balance. Based on this review, we propose a number of avenues for intervention research to address age differences at work. We conclude by identifying critical challenges specific to studying age at work that should be addressed to advance research on interventions.
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ESM 2.0: State of the Art and Future Potential of Experience Sampling Methods in Organizational Research
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 383–407More LessThe use of experience sampling methods (ESM) and related techniques has exploded in organizational research. The goals of this review are to provide a focused perspective on the state of the art in using ESM and set the stage for what ESM will look like in the years to come. First, I provide a conceptually based discussion of exactly what is and what is not ESM. Next, I discuss the more advantageous elements of ESM that have surfaced from the range of disciplines that enjoy its use (e.g., reduced memory and methods biases), followed by the inevitable challenges that have sometimes limited its utility (e.g., issues with repeated assessment, missing data, and internal validity). Finally, I discuss three innovations of ESM (e.g., trait assessment, expansion to higher levels of analysis, and connection to big data) that seem likely to ensure its continued and expanded influence as a common tool for examining not only within-person psychological processes at work, but higher levels of analysis as well.
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Ethical Leadership
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 409–434More LessHigh-profile cases of leaders’ ethical failure in different settings and sectors have led to increased attention to ethical leadership in organizations. In this review, I discuss the rapidly developing field of ethical leadership from an organizational behavior/psychology perspective, taking a behavioral and perceptual angle. After addressing the background of ethical leadership in this field, I discuss how ethical leadership has been defined, which behaviors and characteristics contribute to a leader being seen as ethical by followers, and how ethical leadership relates to other leadership styles. I also contrast ethical with unethical leader behaviors. Next, I address what the research to date tells us about the effects of perceived ethical leader behavior, the mechanisms through which this form of leadership affects followers, and what the role of the context is. Finally, I summarize the challenges the field currently faces, outline several future research directions, and discuss some practical implications of the work to date.
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Differential Validity and Differential Prediction of Cognitive Ability Tests: Understanding Test Bias in the Employment Context
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 435–463More LessSubstantial mean score differences and significant adverse impact have long motivated the question of whether cognitive ability tests are biased against certain non-White subgroups. This article presents a framework for understanding the interrelated issues of adverse impact and test bias, with particular focus on two forms of test bias especially relevant for personnel selection: differential validity and differential prediction. Ethical and legal reasons that organizations should be concerned about differential validity/prediction are discussed. This article also serves as a critical review of the research literature on differential validity/prediction. The general conclusion is that available evidence supports the existence of differential validity/prediction in the form of correlation/slope and intercept differences between White and non-White subgroups. Implications for individuals and organizations are outlined, and a future research agenda is proposed highlighting the need for new, better data; new, better methods of testing for differential validity/prediction; and investigation of substantive factors causing differential validity/prediction.
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Organizational Routines as Patterns of Action: Implications for Organizational Behavior
Vol. 2 (2015), pp. 465–487More LessIn recent years, organizational routines have been studied in a wide variety of settings, including law, medicine, accounting, and engineering. This fieldwork has led to a broader understanding of organizational routines as repetitive, recognizable patterns of interdependent action, carried out by multiple actors. Routines are seen as practices that are situated in a social/material context. Within an organizational routine, individual actions are situated in a broader pattern of actions that can be represented as a network. Recognizing patterns of interdependent action as a unit of analysis entails a research paradigm that has implications for a range of topics in organizational behavior.
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Pay, Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, Performance, and Creativity in the Workplace: Revisiting Long-Held Beliefs
Barry Gerhart, and Meiyu FangVol. 2 (2015), pp. 489–521More LessThe role of compensation or extrinsic rewards, including pay for performance (PFP), has received relatively little attention in the organizational behavior/psychology literature on work motivation. What attention it has received has often taken the form of raising cautions about the potential harmful effects of PFP on (intrinsic) work motivation, as well as on creativity. We critically assess the theory and evidence that have provided the basis for such arguments and conclude that support for such claims (in workplace settings) is lacking. We seek to provide a more accurate view of how extrinsic rewards such as PFP operate in the workplace and how they influence workplace motivation, creativity, and performance. We document how social determination theory and creativity theory have recently undergone major changes that better recognize the potential positive influence of extrinsic rewards such as PFP. Finally, we identify areas in need of further research.
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