1932

Abstract

High blood pressure (hypertension) is a leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease. It is highly prevalent in the US general population, especially in those who are old, African American, or socially disadvantaged. Prevalence is also high and increasing worldwide. Awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension have improved over time, but there is still considerable room for improvement. The optimal solution to this health challenge varies by country. Several nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic interventions are well proven as effective means to prevent hypertension and improve control rates in those with established hypertension. Better prevention and control of hypertension will yield substantial general population health benefits and remain high priorities in public health.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122949
2015-03-18
2024-05-01
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/36/1/annurev-publhealth-031914-122949.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122949&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. ACCORD Study Group 2010. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 362:1575–85 [Google Scholar]
  2. Al-Nozha MM, Osman AK. 2.  1998. The prevalence of hypertension in different geographical regions of Saudi Arabia. Ann. Saudi Med. 18:401–07 [Google Scholar]
  3. Allen JK, Dennison-Himmelfarb CR, Szanton SL, Bone L, Hill MN. 3.  et al. 2011. Community Outreach and Cardiovascular Health (COACH) trial. A randomized, controlled trial of nurse practitioner/community health worker cardiovascular disease risk reduction in urban community health centers. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 4:595–602 [Google Scholar]
  4. 4. ALLHAT Off. and Coord. for the ALLHAT Collab. Res. Group 2002. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker versus diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 288:2981–97 [Google Scholar]
  5. Ambrosius WT, Sink KM, Foy CG, Berlowitz DR, Cheung AK. 5.  et al. 2014. The design and rationale of a multicenter clinical trial comparing two strategies for control of systolic blood pressure: the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT). Clin. Trials 11:532–46 [Google Scholar]
  6. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, Vollmer WM, Svetkey LP. 6.  et al. 1997. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. N. Engl. J. Med. 336:1117–24 [Google Scholar]
  7. 7. Blood Press. Low. Treat. Trialists' Collab 2003. Effects of different blood-pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events: results of prospectively-designed overviews of randomised trials. Lancet 362:1527–35 [Google Scholar]
  8. Burt VL, Cutler JA, Higgins M, Horan MJ, Labarthe D. 8.  et al. 1996. Trends in the prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the adult US population. Data from the health examination surveys, 1960 to 1991. Hypertension 26:60–69 [Google Scholar]
  9. Burt V, Whelton P, Roccella EJ, Brown C, Cutler J. 9.  et al. 1995. Prevalence of hypertension in the U.S. adult population: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1991. Hypertension 25:305–13 [Google Scholar]
  10. Cappuccio FP, Kerry SM, Forbes L, Donald A. 10.  2004. Blood pressure control by home monitoring: meta-analysis of randomized trials. BMJ 329145
  11. Carter BL, Bosworth HB, Green BB. 11.  2012. The hypertension team: the role of the pharmacist, nurse, and teamwork in hypertension therapy. J. Clin. Hypertens. 14:51–65 [Google Scholar]
  12. Cene CW, Dennison CR, Hammond WP, Levine D, Bone LR, Hill MN. 12.  2013. Antihypertensive medication nonadherence in black men: direct and mediating effects of depressive symptoms, psychosocial stressors, and substance abuse. J. Clin. Hypertens. 15:201–9 [Google Scholar]
  13. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA. 13.  et al. 2003. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 289:2560–72 [Google Scholar]
  14. Chow CL, Teo KK, Rangarajan S, Islam S, Gupta R. 14.  et al. 2013. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in rural and urban communities in high-, middle-, and low-income countries. JAMA 310:959–68 [Google Scholar]
  15. Crim MT, Yoon SS, Ortiz E, Wall HK, Schober S. 15.  et al. 2012. National surveillance definitions for hypertension prevalence and control among adults. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 5:343–51 [Google Scholar]
  16. Cushman WC, Ford CE, Cutler JA, Margolis KL, Davis BR. 16.  et al. 2002. Success and predictors of blood pressure control in diverse North American settings: the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). J. Clin. Hypertens. 4:393–404 [Google Scholar]
  17. Cushman WC, Ford CE, Einhorn PT, Wright JT, Preston RA. 17.  et al. 2008. Blood pressure control by drug group in the Antihypertensive and Lipid Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). J. Clin. Hypertens. 10:751–60 [Google Scholar]
  18. Cutler JA, Sorlie PD, Wolz M, Thom T, Fields LE, Roccella EJ. 18.  2008. Trends in hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control rates in United States adults between 1988–1994 and 1999–2004. Hypertension 52:818–27 [Google Scholar]
  19. Desai M, Stockbridge N, Temple R. 19.  2006. Blood pressure as an example of a biomarker that functions as a surrogate. AAPS J. 8:E146–52 [Google Scholar]
  20. Diederichs C, Neuhauser H. 20.  2014. Regional variations in hypertension prevalence and management in Germany: results from the German Health Interview and Examination Study (DEGS1). J. Hypertens. 32:1405–14 [Google Scholar]
  21. Dolor RJ, Schulman KA. 21.  2013. Financial incentives in primary care practice: the struggle to achieve population health goals. JAMA 310:1031–32 [Google Scholar]
  22. Egan BM, Zhao Y, Axon RN. 22.  2010. US trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension, 1988–2008. JAMA 303:2043–50 [Google Scholar]
  23. Elford J, Phillips A, Thomson AG, Shaper AG. 23.  1990. Migration and geographic variations in blood pressure in Britain. BMJ 300:291–95 [Google Scholar]
  24. Falaschetti E, Mindell J, Knott C, Poulter N. 24.  2014. Hypertension management in England: a serial cross-sectional study from 1994 to 2011. Lancet 383:1912–19 [Google Scholar]
  25. Fields LE, Burt VL, Cutler JA, Hughes J, Roccella EJ, Sorlie P. 25.  2004. The burden of adult hypertension in the United States 1999 to 2000: a rising tide. Hypertension 44:398–404 [Google Scholar]
  26. Fleming TR, Powers JH. 26.  2012. Biomarkers and surrogate endpoints in clinical trials. Statist. Med. 31:2973–84 [Google Scholar]
  27. Freis ED. 27.  1994. Historical development of antihypertensive treatment. Hypertension: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management JHM Laragh, BM Brenner 2741–51 New York: Raven, 2nd ed.. [Google Scholar]
  28. Fuentes R, Ilmaniemi N, Laurikainen E, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A. 28.  2000. Hypertension in developing economies: a review of population-based studies carried out from 1980 to 1998. J. Hypertens. 18:521–29 [Google Scholar]
  29. Gao Y, Chen G, Tian H, Lin L, Lu J. 29.  et al.for the China Natl. Diabetes and Metab. Disord. Study Group 2013. Prevalence of hypertension in China: a cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE 86e65938
  30. Gaziano JM. 30.  2013. Progress with the polypill?. JAMA 310:910–11 [Google Scholar]
  31. Gee ME, Janssen I, Pickett W, McAlister FA, Bancej CM. 31.  et al. 2012. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension among Canadian adults with diabetes, 2007 to 2009. Can. J. Cardiol. 28:367–74 [Google Scholar]
  32. Glynn LG, Murphy AW, Smith SM, Schroeder K, Fahey T. 32.  2010. Self-monitoring and other non-pharmacological interventions to improve the management of hypertension in primary care. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 60:e476–88 [Google Scholar]
  33. Gradman AH, Parisé H, Lefebvre P, Falvey H, Lafeuille MH, Duh MS. 33.  2013. Initial combination therapy reduces the risk of cardiovascular events in hypertensive patients: a matched cohort study. Hypertension 61:309–18 [Google Scholar]
  34. Green BB, Cook AJ, Ralston JD, Fishman PA, Catz SL. 34.  et al. 2008. Effectiveness of home blood pressure monitoring, web communication, and pharmacist care on hypertension control: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 299:2857–67 [Google Scholar]
  35. Gu D, Chen J, Wu X, Duan X, Jones DW. 35.  et al. 2009. Prehypertension and risk of cardiovascular disease in Chinese adults. J. Hypertens. 27:721–29 [Google Scholar]
  36. Gu D, Reynolds K, Wu X, Chen J, Duan X. 36.  et al.for the InterASIA Collaborative Group 2002. Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in China. Hypertension 40:920–27 [Google Scholar]
  37. Gu Q, Burt VL, Dillon CF, Yoon S. 37.  2012. Trends in antihypertensive medication use and blood pressure control among United States adults with hypertension: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001 to 2010. Circulation 126:2105–14 [Google Scholar]
  38. Handler J, Lackland DT. 38.  2011. Translation of hypertension treatment guidelines into practice: a review of implementation. J. Am. Soc. Hypertens. 5:197–207 [Google Scholar]
  39. Handler J, Zhao Y, Egan BM. 39.  2012. Impact of the number of blood pressure measurements on blood pressure classification in US adults: NHANES 1999–2008. J. Clin. Hypertens. 14:751–59 [Google Scholar]
  40. Hajjar I, Kotchen T. 40.  2003. Regional variations of blood pressure in the United States are associated with regional variations in dietary intakes: The NHANES-III data. J. Nutr. 133:211–14 [Google Scholar]
  41. Hajjar I, Kotchen TA. 41.  2003. Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the United States, 1988–2000. JAMA 290:199–206 [Google Scholar]
  42. He J, Klag MJ, Wu Z, Whelton PK. 42.  1995. Stroke in the People's Republic of China. I. Geographic variations in incidence and risk factors. Stroke 26:2222–27 [Google Scholar]
  43. He J, Klag MJ, Wu Z, Whelton PK. 43.  1995. Stroke in the People's Republic of China. II. Meta-analysis of hypertension and risk of stroke. Stroke 26:2228–32 [Google Scholar]
  44. Huffman MD, Yusuf S. 44.  2013. Polypills: essential medicines for cardiovascular disease secondary prevention. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 63:1368–70 [Google Scholar]
  45. Ibrahim MM, Rizk H, Appel LJ, el Aroussy W, Helmy S. 45.  et al. 1995. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in Egypt. Results from the Egyptian National Hypertension Project (NHP). NHP Investigative Team. Hypertension 26:886–90 [Google Scholar]
  46. Ikeda N, Sapienza D, Guerrero R, Aekplakorn W, Naghavi M. 46.  et al. 2014. Control of hypertension with medication: a comparative analysis of surveys in 20 countries. Bull. World Health Organ. 92:10–19C [Google Scholar]
  47. Yusuf S, Pais P, Afzal R, Xavier D. 47. Indian Polycap Study (TIPS) et al. 2009. Effects of a polypill (Polycap) on risk factors in middle-aged individuals without cardiovascular disease (TIPS): a phase II, double-blind, randomized trial. Lancet 373:1341–51 [Google Scholar]
  48. Jaffe MG, Lee GA, Young JD, Sidney S, Go AS. 48.  2013. Improved blood pressure control associated with a large-scale hypertension program. JAMA 310:699–705 [Google Scholar]
  49. James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, Cushman WC, Dennison-Himmelfarb C. 49.  et al. 2013. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA 311:507–20 [Google Scholar]
  50. Joffres M, Falaschetti E, Gillespie C, Robitaille C, Loustalot F. 50.  et al. 2013. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment and control in national surveys from England, the USA and Canada, and correlation with stroke and ischaemic heart disease mortality: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 3:e003423 [Google Scholar]
  51. 51. Jt. Natl. Comm 1993. The fifth report of the Joint National Committee on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. Arch. Intern. Med. 153:154–83 [Google Scholar]
  52. Kandala NB, Tigbe W, Manda SO, Stranges S. 52.  2013. Geographic variation of hypertension in Sub-Saharan Africa: a case study of South Africa. Am. J. Hypertens. 26:382–91 [Google Scholar]
  53. Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. 53.  2005. Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet 365:217–23 [Google Scholar]
  54. Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Whelton PK, He J. 54.  2004. Worldwide prevalence of hypertension: a systematic review. J. Hypertens. 22:11–19 [Google Scholar]
  55. Klag MJ, Whelton PK, Randall BL, Neaton JD, Brancati FL. 55.  et al. 1996. Blood pressure and end-stage renal disease in men. N. Engl. J. Med. 334:13–18 [Google Scholar]
  56. Krousel-Wood M, Islam T, Muntner P, Holt E, Morisky DE. 56.  et al. 2010. Association of depression with antihypertensive medication adherence in older adults: cross-sectional and longitudinal findings from CoSMO. Ann. Behav. Med. 40:248–57 [Google Scholar]
  57. Krousel-Wood M, Muntner P, Islam T, Morisky DE, Webber L. 57.  2009. Barriers to and determinants of medication adherence in hypertension management: perspective of the Cohort Study of Medication Adherence among Older Adults. Med. Clin. N. Am. 93:753–69 [Google Scholar]
  58. Labeit AM, Klotsche J, Pieper L, Pittrow D, Einsle F. 58.  et al. 2012. Changes in the prevalence, treatment and control of hypertension in Germany? A clinical-epidemiological study of 50.000 primary care patients. PLOS ONE 712e52229
  59. Lafeber ML, Spiering W, Singh K, Guggilla RK, Patil V, Webster R. 59. on behalf of the SPACE Collab 2011. The cardiovascular polypill in high-risk patients. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 19:1234–42 [Google Scholar]
  60. Lassere MN, Johnson KR, Schiff M, Rees D. 60.  2012. Is blood pressure reduction a valid surrogate endpoint for stroke prevention? An analysis incorporating a systematic review of randomized controlled trials, a by-trial weighted errors-in-variables regression, the surrogate threshold effect (STE) and the biomarker-surrogacy (BioSurrogate) evaluation schema (BSES). BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 12:27 [Google Scholar]
  61. Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ. 61.  2009. Use of blood pressure lowering drugs in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of 147 randomised trials in the context of expectations from prospective epidemiological studies. BMJ 338:b1665 [Google Scholar]
  62. Lawes CMM, Vander Hoorn S, Law MR, Elliott P, MacMahon S, Rodgers A. 62.  2006. Blood pressure and the global burden of disease 2000. Part 1: Estimates of blood pressure levels. J. Hypertens. 24:413–22 [Google Scholar]
  63. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R. 63. Prospect. Stud. Collab 2003. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 360:1903–13 [Google Scholar]
  64. Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD, Danaei G, Shibuya K. 64.  et al. 2012. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380:2224–60 [Google Scholar]
  65. Lonn E, Bosch J, Koon KT, Pais P, Xavier D, Yusuf S. 65.  2010. The polypill in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Key concepts, current status, challenges, and future directions. Circulation 122:2078–88 [Google Scholar]
  66. Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redon J, Zanchetti A. 66.  et al. 2013. 2013 ESH/ESC guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur. Heart J. 34:2159–219 [Google Scholar]
  67. McAlister FA, Wilkins K, Joffres M, Leenen FHH, Fodor G. 67.  et al. 2011. Changes in the rates of awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in Canada over the past two decades. CMAJ 183:1007–13 [Google Scholar]
  68. Micheel CM, Ball JR. 68.  2010. Evaluation of Biomarkers and Surrogate Endpoints in Chronic Disease Washington, DC: Inst. Med., Natl. Acad. Press
  69. Miura K, Daviglus ML, Dyer AR, Liu K, Garside DB. 69.  et al. 2001. Relationship of blood pressure to 25-year mortality due to coronary heart disease, cardiovascular diseases, and all causes in young adult men: the Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry. Arch. Intern. Med. 161:1501–8 [Google Scholar]
  70. Muntner P, Shimbo D, Tonelli M, Reynolds K, Arnett DK, Oparil S. 70.  2011. The relationship between visit-to-visit variability in systolic blood pressure and all-cause mortality in the general population. Hypertension 57:160–66 [Google Scholar]
  71. 71. Natl. Cent. Health Stat 2014. Health, United States, 2013: With Special Feature on Prescription Drugs. Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Cent. Health Stat.
  72. Nwankwo T, Yoon SS, Burt VL, Gu Q. 72.  2013. Hypertension among adults in the United States: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011–2012 NCHS Data Brief 133, Hyattsville, Md.
  73. Olives C, Myerson R, Mokdad AH, Murray CJL, Lim SS. 73.  2013. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in United States counties, 2001–2009. PLOS ONE 8:4e60308 [Google Scholar]
  74. Pereira M, Lunet N, Azevedo A, Barros H. 74.  2009. Differences in prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension between developing and developed countries. J. Hypertens. 27:963–75 [Google Scholar]
  75. Petersen LA, Simpson K, Pietz K, Urech TH, Hysong SJ. 75.  et al. 2013. Effects of individual physician-level and practice-level financial incentives on hypertension care: a randomized trial. JAMA 310:1042–50 [Google Scholar]
  76. Pickering TG, Hall JE, Appel LJ, Falkner BE, Graves G. 76.  et al. 2005. Recommendations for blood pressure measurement in humans and experimental animals Part 1: Blood pressure measurement in humans. A statement for professionals from the Subcommittee of Professional and Public Education of the American Heart Association Council on High Blood Pressure Research. Circulation 111:697–716 [Google Scholar]
  77. Reynolds K, Gu D, Muntner P, Wu X, Chen J. 77.  et al. 2003. Geographic variations in the prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in China. J. Hypertens. 21:1273–81 [Google Scholar]
  78. Rothwell PM, Howard SC, Dolan E, O'Brien E, Dobson JE. 78.  et al. 2010. Prognostic significance of visit-to-visit variability, maximum systolic blood pressure, and episodic hypertension. Lancet 375:895–905 [Google Scholar]
  79. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA. 79.  et al.DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group 2001. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 344:3–10 [Google Scholar]
  80. Sekikawa A, Hayakawa T. 80.  2004. Prevalence of hypertension, its awareness and control in adult population in Japan. J. Hum. Hypertens. 18:911–12 [Google Scholar]
  81. Serumaga B, Ross-Degnan D, Avery AJ, Elliott RA, Majumdar SR. 81.  et al. 2011. Effect of pay for performance on the management and outcomes of hypertension in the United Kingdom: interrupted time series study. BMJ 342:d108 [Google Scholar]
  82. Sharma AM, Wittchen HU, Kirch W, Pittrow D, Ritz E. 82.  et al. 2004. High prevalence and poor control of hypertension in primary care: cross-sectional study. J. Hypertens. 22:479–86 [Google Scholar]
  83. Sherrill B, Halpern M, Khan S, Zhang J, Panjabi S. 83.  2011. Single-pill versus free-equivalent combination therapies for hypertension: a meta-analysis of health care costs and adherence. J. Clin. Hypertens. 13:898–909 [Google Scholar]
  84. Benavente OR, Coffey CS, Conwit R, Hart RG, McClure LA. 84. SPS3 Study Group et al. 2013. Blood-pressure targets in patients with recent lacunar stroke: the SPS3 randomised trial. Lancet 382:507–15 [Google Scholar]
  85. Stamler J, Stamler R, Neaton JD. 85.  1993. Blood pressure, systolic and diastolic, and cardiovascular risks. US population data. Arch. Intern. Med. 153:598–615 [Google Scholar]
  86. Tao S, Wu X, Duan X, Fang W, Hao J. 86.  et al. 1995. Hypertension prevalence and status of awareness, treatment and control in China. Chin. Med. J. 108:483–89 [Google Scholar]
  87. Temple R. 87.  1993. Are surrogate markers adequate to access cardiovascular disease drugs?. JAMA 282:790–95 [Google Scholar]
  88. Thom S, Poulter N, Field J, Patel A, Prabhakaran D. 88.  et al. 2013. Effects of a fixed-dose combination strategy on adherence and risk factors in patients with or at high risk of CVD. The UMPIRE randomized controlled trial. JAMA 310:918–29 [Google Scholar]
  89. Tolonen H, Wolf H, Jakovljevic D, Kuulasmaa K. 89. Eur. Health Risk Monit. Proj 2002. Review of Surveys for Risk Factors of Major Chronic Diseases and Comparability of the Results. Helsinki: Natl. Public Health Inst http://www.thl.fi/publications/ehrm/product1/title.htm
  90. Van der Sande MAB, Milligan PJM, Walraven GEL, Dolmans WMV, Newport M. 90.  et al. 2001. Geographic variation in prevalence of hypertension within The Gambia. J. Hum. Hypertens. 15:733–39 [Google Scholar]
  91. Viera AJ, Cohen LW, Mitchell M, Sloane PD. 91.  2008. Use of home blood pressure monitoring by hypertensive patients in primary care: survey of a practice-based research network cohort. J. Clin. Hypertens. 10:280–86 [Google Scholar]
  92. Wald NJ, Law MR. 92.  2003. A strategy to reduce cardiovascular disease by more than 80%. BMJ 326:1419 [Google Scholar]
  93. Walsh JME, McDonald KM, Shojania KG, Sundaram V, Nayak S. 93.  et al. 2006. Quality improvement strategies for hypertension management: a systematic review. Med. Care 44:646–57 [Google Scholar]
  94. Walsh JME, Sundaram V, McDonald K, Owens DK, Goldstein MK. 94.  2008. Implementing effective hypertension quality improvement strategies: barriers and potential solutions. J. Clin. Hypertens. 10:311–16 [Google Scholar]
  95. Whelton PK. 95.  1994. Epidemiology of hypertension. Lancet 344:101–6 [Google Scholar]
  96. Whelton PK. 96.  2014. Sodium, potassium, blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease in humans. Curr. Hypertens. Rep. 16:465 [Google Scholar]
  97. Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Espeland MA, Applegate WB, Ettinger WH. 97.  et al. 1998. Sodium reduction and weight loss in the treatment of hypertension in older persons: a randomized controlled trial of nonpharmacologic interventions in the elderly (TONE). TONE Collaborative Research Group. JAMA 279:839–46 [Google Scholar]
  98. Whelton PK, He J, Appel LJ, Cutler JA, Havas S. 98.  et al. 2002. Primary prevention of hypertension: clinical and public health advisory from The National High Blood Pressure Education Program. JAMA 288:1882–88 [Google Scholar]
  99. Whelton PK, He J, Muntner P. 99.  2004. Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in North America, North Africa and Asia. J. Hum. Hypertens. 8:545–51 [Google Scholar]
  100. Wolf HK, Tuomilehto J, Kuulasmaa K, Domarkiene S, Capaitis Z. 100.  et al. 1997. Blood pressure levels in the 41 populations of the MONICA Project. J. Hum. Hypertens. 11:733–42 [Google Scholar]
  101. Wu X, Duan X, Gu D, Hao J, Tao S, Fan D. 101.  1995. Prevalence of hypertension and its trends in Chinese populations. Int. J. Cardiol. 52:39–44 [Google Scholar]
  102. Wu Y, Huxley R, Li L, Anna V, Xie G. 102.  et al. 2008. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in China: data from the China National Nutrition and Health Survey 2002. Circulation 118:2679–86 [Google Scholar]
  103. Xi B, Liang Y, Reilly KH, Wang Q, Hu Y, Tang W. 103.  2012. Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension among Chinese adults 1991–2009. Int. J. Cardiol. 158:326–29 [Google Scholar]
  104. Yusuf S, Pais P, Sigamani A, Xavier D, Afzal R. 104.  et al. 2012. Comparison of risk factor reduction and tolerability of a full-dose polypill (with potassium) versus low-dose polypill (Polycap) in individuals at high risk of cardiovascular diseases. The Second Indian Polycap Study (TIPS-2) Investigators. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 5:463–71 [Google Scholar]
  105. Zhao L, Stamler J, Yan LL, Zhou B, Wu Y. 105.  et al. 2004. Blood pressure differences between northern and southern Chinese: role of dietary factors. The International Study on Macronutrients and Blood Pressure. Hypertension 43:1332–37 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122949
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122949
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error