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- Volume 42, 1997
Annual Review of Entomology - Volume 42, 1997
Volume 42, 1997
- Preface
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- Review Articles
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J. S. Kennedy (1912–1993): A Clear Thinker in Behavior's Confused World
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 1–22More LessThis is an account of the scientific life of John Stodart Kennedy, Fellow of the Royal Society; Emeritus Professor of Animal Behaviour at Imperial College, London; the holder of numerous scientific honors; and known to us all as JSK. He was not at heart an entomologist; his principal interest was in the integration of animal behavior, but he pursued that interest through a lifetime's study of locusts, aphids, and moths, especially in the context of how they integrated their flight behavior. Two features marked his science: an obsession with accurate, objective quantification of animals' behavioral responses through experimentation and a ruthless demolition of anthropomorphic analyses of behavioral causes. This biography is both a history of his scientific work and a tribute to a hugely admired colleague, research leader, and friend of some 30 years. The details of Kennedy's life were provided in part by his family, in part by the autobiographical notes he wrote for the Royal Society, and in part by his surviving colleagues from those early years; the last three decades are based on the author's personal knowledge and observation.
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ADAPTATIONS IN SCALE INSECTS
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 23–50More Less▪ AbstractMany unusual features of scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) can be explained as historical legacy. Developmental specializations in ancestral coccoids resulted in a neotenous adult female and a drastic metamorphosis of the male. Subsequent evolution led to numerous, often convergently derived, adaptations to parasitic life on higher plants. The sedentary lifestyle of female scale insects has favored the evolution of appendage reduction or loss, gross changes in body shape, and protective wax secretions, tests, and other scale covers. Morphological peculiarities of adult males relate to flight or to mating with concealed females. Scale insects have diverse egg-protecting methods, a range of chromosome behaviors (including several methods of sex determination), marked sexual dimorphism [even sometimes in first-instar nymphs (crawlers)], and more rarely sexual dichronism. Crawlers have evolved as the main agents of dispersal. The biotic interactions of scale insects include diverse endosymbioses with microorganisms, sometimes morphological and behavioral adaptations for obligate association with ants, and often highly specific host-plant associations that may lead to demic adaptation or the evolution of complex galls.
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ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF GALLING THRIPS AND THEIR ALLIES
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 51–71More Less▪ AbstractAbout 300 species of thrips belonging to 57 genera are known to form galls. Galls are caused by feeding, usually by one or more adults, on actively growing plant tissue. Most thrips genera with galling capabilities exploit multiple plant families, but there are several possible cases of thrips tracking the speciations of their host-plants. Gall morphology in thrips reflects insect phylogenetic relationships rather than those of plants. Galling species and their nongalling allies on Acacia in Australia exhibit a range of complex social behavior, including soldier castes, pleometrosis (i.e. joint colony founding), group foraging, and group defense, that is directly related to the nature of their domiciles. Galling thrips, by virtue of their haplodiploid genetic system and their ecological relationships with plants and natural enemies, are useful for analyzing a wide range of ecological, evolutionary, and behavioral questions.
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DIPTERA AS PARASITOIDS
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 73–97More Less▪ AbstractParasitoids in the insect order Diptera include an estimated 16,000 species, or approximately 20% of the total number of species with this life-style. Parasitoids in this order are exceedingly diverse in both their habits and evolutionary origins, which makes them an underutilized but highly suitable group for quantitative studies of character convergence and adaptive radiation. This review focuses on several aspects of the bionomics of dipteran parasitoids that have received little comprehensive treatment, including processes associated with host location and attack, patterns of host use, and the evolutionary and ecological consequences of host-parasitoid interactions. Throughout the review we contrast the patterns found within the parasitic Diptera against those found in the better studied parasitic Hymenoptera. We conclude that more intensive study of dipteran parasitoids is required before we can understand the general conditions that favor the evolution of insect parasitoids and the truly magnifying themes of their behavior and ecology.
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WILD HOSTS OF PENTATOMIDS:Ecological Significance and Role in Their Pest Status on Crops
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 99–122More Less▪ AbstractPhytophagous stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) are important pests of many crops, feeding mostly on seeds and immature fruits. During feeding they introduce their stylets to remove the cells' contents. The resulting damage includes drop and/or malformation of seeds and fruits. As stink bugs are generally polyphagous, they feed on cultivated and uncultivated plants; consequently, wild host plants play an important role in the increase in population levels of agricultural pest species. These plants are important food resources for development of nymphs and reproduction of adults. Because these bugs are multivoltine and feed in general on temporarily restricted food plants, host-switching from food plants of nymphs to those of adults is common and has varying effects on adult performance depending on the quality of the foods involved. Although polyphagous, local populations of many pentatomid species may show specific feeding habits, restricting their host range to fewer plant species. The knowledge of host plant sequences, including cultivated and uncultivated hosts, and the use of wild hosts as trap plants will improve management of pest species. Finally, future research should focus on determining which plants are preferably used by stink bugs, how they affect insect performance, at what rate populations increase on these plants, and how effective natural enemies are at this time.
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BEHAVIORAL MANIPULATION METHODS FOR INSECT PEST-MANAGEMENT
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 123–146More Less▪ AbstractWe discuss methods using stimuli to manipulate behavior of a pest for the purpose of protecting a valued resource. The methods are divided into two categories: those that manipulate behavior over a long distance, e.g. volatile chemicals, visual, and auditory stimuli, and those that manipulate behavior at a short distance (>1 cm), e.g. involatile chemicals. Particular emphasis is placed on methods that have been developed through studies of pest behavior and on combining stimuli to increase efficacy. Future prospects for behavioral manipulation methods in pest management are discussed.
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VISUAL ACUITY IN INSECTS
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 147–177More Less▪ AbstractThe acuity of compound eyes is determined by interommatidial angles, optical quality, and rhabdom dimensions. It is also affected by light levels and speed of movement. In insects, interommatidial angles vary from tens of degrees in Apterygota, to as little as 0.24° in dragonflies. Resolution better than this is not attainable in compound eyes of realistic size. The smaller the interommatidial angle the greater the distance at which objects—prey, predators, or foliage—can be resolved. Insects with different lifestyles have contrasting patterns of interommatidial angle distribution, related to forward flight, capture on the wing, and predation on horizontal surfaces.
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INTERACTIONS AMONG SCOLYTID BARK BEETLES, THEIR ASSOCIATED FUNGI, AND LIVE HOST CONIFERS
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 179–206More Less▪ AbstractScolytid bark beetles that colonize living conifers are frequently associated with specific fungi that are carried in specialized structures or on the body surface. These fungi are introduced into the tree during the attack process. The continuing association suggests that there is mutual benefit to the fitness of both beetles and fungi. The fungal species may benefit from the association with the beetles by transport to new host trees. Beetle species may benefit from the association with fungi by feeding on the fungi, or by the fungi contributing to the death of the host trees through mycelial penetration of host tissue, toxin release, interactions with preformed and induced conifer defenses, or the combined action of both beetles and fungi during colonization. Extensive research has been directed towards characterizing the interactions of beetle-fungal complexes with live host conifers and determining the ecological advantages for maintaining the associations. However, differences among systems and how species interact under different population and environmental conditions make it difficult to generalize about the importance of the separate biological components in successful host colonization.
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PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF DISPERSAL POLYMORPHISM IN INSECTS
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 207–230More Less▪ AbstractStudies of dispersal polymorphism in insects have played a pivotal role in advancing our understanding of population dynamics, life history evolution, and the physiological basis of adaptation. Comparative data on wing-dimorphic insects provide the most definitive evidence to date that habitat persistence selects for reduced dispersal capability. The increased fecundity of flightless females documents that a fitness trade-off exists between flight capability and reproduction. However, only recently have studies of nutrient consumption and allocation provided unequivocal evidence that this fitness trade-off results from a trade-off of internal resources. Recent studies involving wing-dimorphic insects document that flight capability imposes reproductive penalties in males as well as females. Direct information on hormone titers and their regulation implicates juvenile hormone and ecdysone in the control of wing-morph determination. However, detailed information is available for only one species, and the physiological regulation of wing-morph production remains poorly understood. Establishing a link betweeen the ecological factors that influence dispersal and the proximate physiological mechanisms regulating dispersal ability in the same taxon remains as a key challenge for future research.
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EVOLUTION OF ARTHROPOD SILKS
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 231–267More Less▪ AbstractSilks belong to the class of molecules called structural proteins. The ability to produce silk proteins has evolved multiple times in the arthropods, and silk secreting glands have evolved via two different pathways. The comparative data and phylogenetic analyses in this review suggest that the silk-secreting systems of spiders and insects are homologous and linked to the crural gland (origin of systemic pathway to silk production) and cuticular secretions (origin of surficial pathway to silk production) of an onychophoran-like ancestor. The evolution of silk secreting organs via a surficial pathway is possible in adult and larval hexapods, regardless of their developmental mode. Silk secretion via a systemic pathway is possible in either adult or larval hexapods, but only larval insects have dedicated silk producing glands. Spiders, however, have evolved silk producing systems via both systemic pathway and surficial pathways, and a single individual retains both throughout its lifespan. Early in the evolution of spiders, silk glands were undifferentiated, suggesting that the number of silk secreting glands of any individual was related to the spider's energetic need to produce large quantities of protein. However, the complex silk-producing systems that characterize the aerial web–building spiders and the diverse types of proteins they produce suggest that their silks reflect the diverse and increasing number of ways in which spiders use them. Because the muscular and innervated spinnerets and spigots of spiders allow them to control fiber functional properties, silk proteins represent an avenue through which animal behavior may directly affect the molecular properties of a protein.
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INSECTS AS TEACHING TOOLS IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 269–289More Less▪ AbstractInsects offer a vast array of teaching opportunities for precollege students. Here we address the basics teachers need in order to use insects successfully in their curricula. We identify exemplary resources in the printed North American literature and point out potentially productive places for teachers and students to search for ideas and materials. We review the roles of entomology in the educational framework, highlight favorite classroom arthropods and less well-known examples, and guide readers to entomological resources. Tips to help teachers identify, rear, and maintain classroom insects and find equipment and supplies are included. The review concludes with a plea for greater classroom and curricular involvement by those in the entomological profession.
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LIFE-STYLES OF PHYTOSEIID MITES AND THEIR ROLES IN BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 291–321More Less▪ AbstractThis review categorizes the diversity of life-styles in the Phytoseiidae, based primarily on food habits and related biological and morphological traits. The life-styles proposed are as follows: Type I, specialized predators of Tetranychus species represented by the Phytoseiulus species; Type II, selective predators of tetranychid mites (most frequently associated with species that produce dense webbing) represented by Galendromus, some Neoseiulus, and a few Typhlodromus species; Type III, generalist predators represented by some Neoseiulus species and most Typhlodromus and Amblyseius species, as well as species in all other genera about which information is available; Type IV, specialized pollen feeders/generalist predators represented by Euseius species. Consideration is given to the relative importance of each of these types in biological control and pest management programs.
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PHOTOPERIODIC TIME MEASUREMENT AND RELATED PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS IN INSECTS AND MITES
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 323–349More Less▪ AbstractFor over 60 years, many species of insects and mites have been known to respond in an adaptive way to seasonal changes in daylength. Responses to photoperiod allow them to survive periods of unfavorable environmental conditions. Since the early 1950s, light-sensitive and temperature-compensated circadian clocks have also been known to regulate the timing of many events (behavioral, physiological, biochemical) in all eukaryotic organisms, including insects and mites. Over the past 30 years, considerable effort has been directed at elucidation of the nature of the clock mechanism that underlies photoperiodism. Mathematical models using a number of insect systems have been developed that attempt to causally relate the circadian clock to photoperiodic time measurement. Although some experimental evidence supports these circadian-based models, some insects and mites appear to utilize a non-periodic hourglass timer as the photoperiodic clock. Future work in this field would benefit by following the approach that has proven to be very successful in identifying genes and gene products that regulate circadian rhythmicity in Drosophila melanogaster.
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SYSTEMATICS OF MOSQUITO DISEASE VECTORS (DIPTERA, CULICIDAE):Impact of Molecular Biology and Cladistic Analysis
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 351–369More Less▪ AbstractThe field of medical entomology, by nature of its association with problems of human health, has been conservative in its application of molecular and computer technologies to systematic research. Recently, however, these methods have opened new interpretations for systematics of disease vectors. Medically important insects, particularly mosquitoes, are among those more thoroughly described by conventional taxonomy, and thereby provide a secure framework for testing congruencies with molecular data. In turn, molecular investigations have provided a stimulus to vector systematics in the discovery and delineation of cryptic species complexes, as well as providing new perspectives on relationships at higher taxonomic divisions. In this review, examples involving cladistic analysis, cytogenetics—in situ hybridization, isoenzymes, DNA sequencing, and restriction fragment polymorphism are drawn from the following taxa: Aedes communis; Aedes (Ochlerotatus) group G; Aedes (Stegomyia) species including A. aegypti, A. albopictus, and A. scutellaris group; Anopheles albitarsis, Anopheles dirus, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles nuneztovari, Anopheles pseudopunctipennis, and Anopheles punctulatus groups; Culex pipiens and the Culex subgenus Melanoconion; and the tribe Sabethini.
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HOST PLANT INFLUENCES ON SEX PHEROMONE BEHAVIOR OF PHYTOPHAGOUS INSECTS1
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 371–391More Less▪ AbstractThe sexual behavior of phytophagous insects is often integrated in a variety of ways with their host plants. This integration may be manifested as effects or influences of host plants on insect physiology and behavior, including sex pheromone communication, that reflect strategies by insects to optimize mating and reproduction. Certain insects sequester or otherwise acquire host plant compounds and use them as sex pheromones or sex pheromone precursors. Other insects produce or release sex pheromones in response to particular host plant cues. Chemicals from host plants often synergize or otherwise enhance insect responses to sex pheromones. By these means, host plants may be used by insects to regulate or mediate sexual communication.
For many species of insects, host plant influences on insect sex pheromone communication may be important aspects of the formation of feeding and mating aggregations, of insect strategies to locate both hosts and mates, of behavioral reproductive isolation among sibling species, and of the regulation of reproduction to coincide with the availability of food and oviposition sites. Knowledge of these relationships is critical to understanding many different areas of the behavioral ecology of plant-feeding insects.
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MIGRATORY ECOLOGY OF THE BLACK CUTWORM
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 393–425More Less▪ AbstractThe long-range migration of insects in general is briefly discussed here and serves as an introduction for in-depth inquiry into the migratory ecology of Agrotis ipsilon, the black cutworm. Zoogeography, pest status and injury, and seasonal occurrence of the species are reviewed. Circumstantial evidence of long-range movement of A. ipsilon moths within both hemispheres is presented, followed by experimental evidence of long-range movement of A. ipsilon moths in China and North America. Based upon experimental evidence published by several investigators, a theory is proposed of the existence of a thermal range (0–36°C) for A. ipsilon pupae that acts as the precursor for adult (moth) migration. This theory should help explain the circumstantial and empirical evidence gathered upon the annual appearance and disappearance of this species over large geographic areas.
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PHYLOGENY OF TRICHOPTERA
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 427–450More Less▪ AbstractThe vitality of the phylogenetic dialogue in trichopterology, especially since 1967, is evidenced by the high quality and large number of published phylogenetic inferences concerning caddisflies and the continuing spirited exchange of opinions about some differences among those ideas. Monophyly for Trichoptera seems well argued. Monophyly for suborder Annulipalpia sensu stricto also is widely acknowledged, as is monophyly for suborder Integripalpia sensu stricto. Various postulated relationships of Hydrobiosidae, Rhyacophilidae, Glossosomatidae, and Hydroptilidae (= “Spicipalpia”) are less convincing. Phylogenies for several groups of families within Annulipalpia and Integripalpia have been proposed and relationships within at least 126 infrafamilial taxa also have been inferred.
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THE BIOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND MANAGEMENT OF THE CAT FLEA
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 451–473More Less▪ AbstractThe cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis felis, is the most important ectoparasite of domestic cats and dogs worldwide. In addition to its annoyance to pets and humans, C. felis felis is responsible for flea bite allergy dermatitis and the transmission of dog tapeworm. The abiotic and biotic factors that affect the development of immature stages are reviewed with special emphasis given to those aspects directly affecting control. Factors influencing host selection and feeding by adults are summarized. Recent studies concerning mating and oviposition, especially as they impact the likelihood of survival by immatures, are discussed. There has been an increase in the number of reports of insecticide resistance in the past ten years. Greater attention has been placed on disrupting larval development in modern IPM programs. The immature stages of the cat flea are extremely susceptible to environmental factors such as temperature and relative humidity and insect growth regulators (IGRs). In recent years, the control of cat fleas has increasingly relied on the use of IGRs applied to the host or to the indoor environment. Finally, we discuss advances in pesticide chemistry that provide tools for better control of adult fleas on the host.
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BEHAVIOR AND ECOLOGICAL GENETICS OF WIND-BORNE MIGRATION BY INSECTS
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 475–502More Less▪ AbstractWind-borne migration, in which migrants ascend to altitudes at which they are transported downwind, has evolved independently in several insect orders. The use of a range of observational techniques, including ground and air-borne radars, has provided new insights into how the migrants' behavior can influence the distance traveled and the degree of dispersal during migration. Simultaneously in recent years, advances in our knowledge of the genetics of migratory potential have provided a basis for understanding how the stochastic effects of the winds on destinations and the pattern of habitat distribution in space and time maintain variation in these traits in populations of wind-borne migrants. This variation, in turn, is an essential factor in the ability of these insects, many of which are important pests, to track often unpredictable changes in the spatial distribution of suitable habitats.
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BIONOMICS OF THE FACE FLY, MUSCA AUTUMNALIS
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 503–523More Less▪ AbstractThe face fly was introduced from the Palearctic region and spread across North America in 20 years after World War II. Adults feed on cattle and horses, and larvae develop in fresh cattle dung. Little genetic differentiation appears between European and North American populations and among regions within North America. After an autumnally initiated diapause, overwintered flies emerge in spring and reproduce through late spring and summer. Generations after the first overlap, and age structure develops toward a stable age distribution. After three to ten generations, depending on weather, facultative diapause interrupts host feeding and oogenesis, and flies with hypertrophied fat body enter overwintering hibernaculae. Life table statistics and factors affecting population growth and diapause are reviewed. Early views on the fly's effects on animal productivity may have been exaggerated. On-farm control by conventional means has not been effective because of the fly's population dynamics and mobility. We suggest that the alternatives of classical biological control and area-wide control with the sterile insect technique should be considered.
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PERITROPHIC MATRIX STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 525–550More Less▪ AbstractFormed of proteins, glycoproteins, and chitin microfibrils in a proteoglycan matrix, the peritrophic matrix (PM) separates the food from the midgut epithelium in most but not all insects. A PM occurs in two forms. A type I PM is delaminated from the entire midgut epithelium and, in some cases, may only be formed in response to feeding and the type of meal ingested. A type II PM is produced by a specialized region of the anterior midgut called the cardia and forms a continuous sleeve (or sleeves) that is always present. As it is positioned between food and midgut epithelium, the PM plays key roles in the intestinal biology of the insect. The PM may protect the midgut epithelium from mechanical damage and insult from pathogens and toxins; it must act as a semipermeable membrane regulating passage of molecules between the different midgut compartments; and it may separate the midgut lumen into different, physiologically significant compartments.
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GENETIC DISSECTION OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 551–585More Less▪ AbstractMating of Drosophila melanogaster is a stereotypically patterned behavior consisting of a fixed sequence of actions that are primarily under genetic control. Mutations that disrupt specific aspects of mating activities offer a starting point for exploring the molecular machineries underlying sexual behavior. Several genes, identified as causing aberrant sexual behavior when mutated, have been isolated and cloned, providing molecular probes for expression and mosaic analyses that can be used in specifying the cells responsible for the behavior. This review presents current understandings of mating behavior obtained by such molecular and cellular approaches and provides an overview of future directions of research in behavioral genetics.
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BIOLOGY OF WOLBACHIA
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 587–609More Less▪ AbstractWolbachia are a common and widespread group of bacteria found in reproductive tissues of arthropods. These bacteria are transmitted through the cytoplasm of eggs and have evolved various mechanisms for manipulating reproduction of their hosts, including induction of reproductive incompatibility, pathenogenesis, and feminization. Wolbachia are also transmitted horizontally between arthropod species. Significant recent advances have been made in the study of these interesting microorganisms. In this paper, Wolbachia biology is reviewed, including their phylogeny and distribution, mechanisms of action, population biology and evolution, and biological control implications. Potential directions for future research are also discussed.
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BIOLOGICAL MEDIATORS OF INSECT IMMUNITY
Vol. 42 (1997), pp. 611–643More Less▪ AbstractInfection in insects stimulates a complex defensive response. Recognition of pathogens may be accomplished by plasma or hemocyte proteins that bind specifically to bacterial or fungal polysaccharides. Several morphologically distinct hemocyte cell types cooperate in the immune response. Hemocytes attach to invading organisms and then isolate them by phagocytosis, by trapping them in hemocyte aggregates called nodules, or by forming an organized multicellular capsule around large parasites. These responses are often accompanied by proteolytic activation of the phenoloxidase zymogen that is present in the hemolymph. A component of insect immune responses to bacteria is the synthesis by fat body and hemocytes of a variety of antibacterial proteins and peptides, which are secreted into the hemolymph. These molecules attack bacteria by several mechanisms. Inducible antifungal proteins have also been recently discovered in insect hemolymph. The promoters for several antibacterial protein genes in insects are regulated by transcription factors similar to those involved in mammalian acute phase responses.
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Previous Volumes
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Volume 69 (2024)
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Volume 68 (2023)
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Volume 67 (2022)
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Volume 66 (2021)
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Volume 65 (2020)
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Volume 64 (2019)
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Volume 63 (2018)
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Volume 62 (2017)
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Volume 61 (2016)
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Volume 60 (2015)
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Volume 59 (2014)
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Volume 58 (2013)
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Volume 57 (2012)
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Volume 56 (2011)
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Volume 55 (2010)
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Volume 54 (2009)
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Volume 53 (2008)
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Volume 52 (2007)
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Volume 51 (2006)
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Volume 50 (2005)
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Volume 49 (2004)
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Volume 48 (2003)
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Volume 47 (2002)
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Volume 46 (2001)
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Volume 45 (2000)
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Volume 44 (1999)
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Volume 43 (1998)
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Volume 42 (1997)
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Volume 41 (1996)
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Volume 40 (1995)
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Volume 39 (1994)
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Volume 38 (1993)
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Volume 37 (1992)
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Volume 36 (1991)
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Volume 35 (1990)
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Volume 34 (1989)
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Volume 33 (1988)
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Volume 32 (1987)
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Volume 31 (1986)
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Volume 30 (1985)
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Volume 29 (1984)
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Volume 28 (1983)
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Volume 27 (1982)
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Volume 26 (1981)
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Volume 25 (1980)
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Volume 24 (1979)
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Volume 23 (1978)
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Volume 22 (1977)
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Volume 21 (1976)
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Volume 20 (1975)
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Volume 19 (1974)
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Volume 18 (1973)
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Volume 17 (1972)
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Volume 16 (1971)
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Volume 15 (1970)
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Volume 14 (1969)
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Volume 13 (1968)
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Volume 12 (1967)
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Volume 11 (1966)
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Volume 10 (1965)
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Volume 9 (1964)
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Volume 8 (1963)
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Volume 7 (1962)
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Volume 6 (1961)
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Volume 5 (1960)
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Volume 4 (1959)
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Volume 3 (1958)
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Volume 2 (1957)
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Volume 1 (1956)
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Volume 0 (1932)