1932

Abstract

Although consonantal variation has traditionally been studied using auditory coding, techniques now exist for measuring any kind of consonants acoustically and/or articulatorily. These methods have already been employed extensively for studying variation in many languages. Techniques and past studies using them are reviewed for rhotics, laterals, fricatives, stops, weakening and strengthening processes, and voicing. These methods are becoming well established in sociolinguistic inquiry. One of the greatest remaining challenges is to design studies that combine these methods with current sociological approaches to human interactions.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011415-040534
2016-01-14
2024-10-08
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/linguistics/2/1/annurev-linguistics-011415-040534.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011415-040534&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Alam F, Stuart-Smith J. 2011. Identity and ethnicity in /t/ in Glasgow-Pakistani high-school girls. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference of Phonetic Sciences W-S Lee, E Zee 216–19 Hong Kong: City Univ. Hong Kong http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/71760 [Google Scholar]
  2. al-Rojaie Y. 2013. Regional dialect leveling in Najdi Arabic: the case of the deaffrication of [k] in the Qasīmī dialect. Lang. Var. Change 25:43–63 [Google Scholar]
  3. Ash S. 1982. The vocalization of /l/ in Philadelphia PhD thesis, Dep. Linguist., Univ. Penn., Philadelphia 350 [Google Scholar]
  4. Baker A, Mielke J, Archangeli D. 2006. Probing the Big Bang with ultrasound: retraction of /s/ in English Presented at Annu. Meet. Linguist. Soc. Am., 80th, Albuquerque [Google Scholar]
  5. Baker A, Archangeli D, Mielke J. 2011. Variability in American English s-retraction suggests a solution to the actuation problem. Lang. Var. Change 23:347–74 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bayard D. 1999. Getting in a flap or turning off the tap in Dunedin? Stylistic variation in New Zealand English intervocalic (-t-). Engl. World-Wide 20:125–55 [Google Scholar]
  7. Bayley R. 1994. Consonant cluster reduction in Tejano English. Lang. Var. Change 6:303–26 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bradley TG, Willis EW. 2012. Variación y contraste en las róticas del español mexicano de Veracruz. [Rhotic variation and contrast in Veracruz Mexican Spanish.] Estud. Fon. Esp. 21:43–74 [Google Scholar]
  9. Broadbent JM. 2008. t-to-r in West Yorkshire English.. Engl. Lang. Linguist. 12:141–68 [Google Scholar]
  10. Browman CP, Goldstein L. 1990. Tiers in articulatory phonology, with some implications for casual speech. Papers in Laboratory Phonology I: Beyond the Grammar and Physics of Speech J Kingston, ME Beckman 341–76 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  11. Browman CP, Goldstein L. 1991. Gestural structures: distinctiveness, phonological processes, and historical change. Modularity and the Motor Theory of Speech Perception IG Mattingly, M Studdert-Kennedy 313–38 Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum [Google Scholar]
  12. Buchstaller I, Corrigan KP, Holmberg A, Honeybone P, Maguire W. 2013. T-to-R and the Northern Subject Rule: questionnaire-based spatial, social and structural linguistics. Engl. Lang. Linguist. 17:85–128 [Google Scholar]
  13. Byrd D. 1994. Relations of sex and dialect to reduction. Speech Commun. 15:39–54 [Google Scholar]
  14. Campbell-Kibler K. 2011. Intersecting variables and perceived sexual orientation in men. Am. Speech 86:52–68 [Google Scholar]
  15. Carter P, Local J. 2007. F2 variation in Newcastle and Leeds English liquid systems. J. Int. Phon. Assoc. 37:183–99 [Google Scholar]
  16. Cedergren HCJ. 1973. The interplay of social and linguistic factors in Panama PhD thesis, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N.Y 162 [Google Scholar]
  17. Choi H. 2002. Acoustic cues for the Korean stop contrast—dialectal variation. ZAS Pap. Linguist. 28:1–12 [Google Scholar]
  18. Clark L, Watson K. 2011. Testing claims of a usage-based phonology with Liverpool English t-to-r. Engl. Lang. Linguist. 15:523–47 [Google Scholar]
  19. Colantoni L. 2006a. Increasing periodicity to reduce similarity: an acoustic account of deassibilation in rhotics. Selected Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Laboratory Approaches to Spanish Phonetics and Phonology M Díaz-Campos 22–34 Somerville, MA: Cascadilla http://www.lingref.com/cpp/lasp/2/abstract1323.html [Google Scholar]
  20. Colantoni L. 2006b. Micro and macro sound variation and change in Argentine Spanish. Selected Proceedings of the 9th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium N Sagarra, AJ Toribio 91–102 Somerville, MA: Cascadilla http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/9/abstract1369.html [Google Scholar]
  21. Colantoni L, Marinescu I. 2010. The scope of stop weakening in Argentine Spanish. Selected Proceedings of the 4th Conference on Laboratory Approaches to Spanish Phonology M Ortega-Llebaria 100–14 Somerville, MA: Cascadilla [Google Scholar]
  22. Crystal TH, House AS. 1988. The duration of American-English stop consonants: an overview. J. Phon. 16:285–94 [Google Scholar]
  23. Delattre PC, Freeman DC. 1968. A dialect study of American r's by X-ray motion picture. Linguistics 44:29–68 [Google Scholar]
  24. Demolin D. 2001. Some phonetic and phonological observations concerning /r/ in Belgian French. ‘r-atics: Sociolinguistic, Phonetic and Phonological Characteristics of /r/ H Van de Velde, R van Hout 63–73 Brussels: Etud. Trav., Inst. Lang. Vivantes Phon., Univ. Libre Bruxelles [Google Scholar]
  25. Docherty GJ, Foulkes P. 1999. Derby and Newcastle: instrumental phonetics and variationist studies. Urban Voices: Accent Studies in the British Isles P Foulkes, GJ Docherty 47–71 London: Arnold [Google Scholar]
  26. Docherty GJ, Foulkes P, Milroy J, Milroy L, Walshaw D. 1997. Descriptive adequacy in phonology: a variationist perspective. J. Linguist. 33:275–310 [Google Scholar]
  27. Docherty GJ, Watt D, Llamas C, Hall D, Nycz J. 2011. Variation in voice onset time along the Scottish–English border. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference of Phonetic Sciences W-S Lee, E Zee 591–94 Hong Kong: City Univ. Hong Kong [Google Scholar]
  28. Dodsworth R. 2005. Attribute networking: a technique for modeling social perceptions. J. Sociolinguist. 9:225–53 [Google Scholar]
  29. Dodsworth R, Hazen KA. 2012. Going to L in Appalachia: language change for L-vocalization in the Mountain State. Presented at Annu. Meet. Linguist. Soc. Am., 86th, Portland, Or.
  30. Durian D. 2007. Getting [∫]tronger every day? Urbanization and the socio-geographic diffusion of (str) in Columbus, OH. Univ. Penn. Work. Pap. Linguist. 13:65–79 [Google Scholar]
  31. Durian D. 2008. The vocalization of /l/ in urban blue collar Columbus, OH African American Vernacular English: a quantitative sociophonetic analysis. Ohio State Univ. Work. Pap. Linguist. 58:30–51 [Google Scholar]
  32. Eddington D, Channer C. 2010. American English has go of glottal stops: social diffusion and linguistic motivation. Am. Speech 85:338–51 [Google Scholar]
  33. Eddington D, Savage M. 2012. Where are the mounns in Utah?. Am. Speech 87:336–49 [Google Scholar]
  34. Erker DG. 2010. A subsegmental approach to coda /s/ weakening in Dominican Spanish. Int. J. Sociol. Lang. 203:9–26 [Google Scholar]
  35. Espy-Wilson CY, Boyce SE, Jackson M, Narayanan S, Alwan A. 2000. Acoustic modeling of American English /r/. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 108:343–56 [Google Scholar]
  36. File-Muriel RJ, Brown EK. 2011. The gradient nature of s-lenition in Caleño Spanish. Lang. Var. Change 23:223–43 [Google Scholar]
  37. Flege JE. 1991. Age of learning affects the authenticity of voice-onset time (VOT) in stop consonants produced in a second language. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 84:901–16 [Google Scholar]
  38. Flege JE, Hillenbrand J. 1984. Limits on phonetic accuracy in foreign language speech production. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 76:708–21 [Google Scholar]
  39. Foulkes P, Docherty GJ. 2000. Another chapter in the story of /r/: “labiodental” variants in British English. J. Sociolinguist. 4:30–59 [Google Scholar]
  40. Foulkes P, Docherty GJ. 2006. The social life of phonetics and phonology. J. Phon. 34:409–38 [Google Scholar]
  41. Fourakis M, Port R. 1986. Stop epenthesis in English. J. Phon. 14:197–221 [Google Scholar]
  42. Fox MJ. 2013. Coarticulation in variation analysis: locus equations as a valid measure of vowel-to-consonant transitions MA capstone pap., N. C. State Univ., Raleigh [Google Scholar]
  43. Galindo DL. 1987. Linguistic influence and variation on the English of Chicano adolescents in Austin Texas PhD thesis, Dep. Linguist., Univ. Tex., Austin 448 [Google Scholar]
  44. Galindo DL. 1988. Towards a description of Chicano English: a sociolinguistic perspective. Linguistic Change and Contact (Proceedings of the 16th Annual Conference on New Ways of Analyzing Variation in Language) K Ferrara, B Brown, K Walters, J Baugh 113–23 Austin: Dep. Linguist., Univ. Tex. [Google Scholar]
  45. Guy GR. 1991. Contextual conditioning in a variable lexical phonology. Lang. Var. Change 3:223–39 [Google Scholar]
  46. Gylfadottir D. 2014. Shtreets of Philadelphia Presented at New Ways Anal. Var., 43nd, Chicago [Google Scholar]
  47. Helgason P. 2001. Convergence in historical phonetics: stop contrasts in Ålund and Iceland. Lund Univ. Dep. Linguist. Work. Pap. 49:54–57 [Google Scholar]
  48. Helgason P. 2002. Preaspiration in the Nordic languages: synchronic and diachronic aspects PhD thesis, Dep. Linguist., Stockholm Univ 255 [Google Scholar]
  49. Henriksen NC, Willis EW. 2010. Acoustic characterization of phonemic trill production in Jerezano Andalusian Spanish. Selected Proceedings of the 4th Conference on Laboratory Approaches to Spanish Phonology M Ortega-Llebaria 115–27 Somerville, MA: Cascadilla [Google Scholar]
  50. Heselwood B, McChrystal L. 1999. The effect of age-group and place of L1 acquisition on the realization of Panjabi stop consonants in Bradford: an acoustic sociophonetic study. Leeds Work. Pap. Linguist. Phon. 7:49–69 [Google Scholar]
  51. Hombert J-M, Ohala JJ, Ewan WG. 1979. Phonetic explanations for the development of tones. Language 55:37–58 [Google Scholar]
  52. Horvath BM, Horvath RJ. 2001. A multilocality study of a sound change in progress: the case of /l/ vocalization in New Zealand and Australian English. Lang. Var. Change 13:37–57 [Google Scholar]
  53. Horvath BM, Horvath RJ. 2002. The geolinguistics of /l/ vocalization in Australia and New Zealand. J. Sociolinguist. 6:319–46 [Google Scholar]
  54. Howe P. 2014. Variation in fricative production in Malagasy dialects. Univ. Penn. Work. Pap. Linguist. 20:60–70 [Google Scholar]
  55. Jacewicz E, Fox RA, Lyle S. 2009. Variation in stop consonant voicing in two regional varieties of American English. J. Int. Phon. Assoc. 39:313–34 [Google Scholar]
  56. Jannedy S, Weirich M. 2014. Sound change in an urban setting: category instability of the palatal fricative in Berlin. Lab. Phonol. 5:91–122 [Google Scholar]
  57. Jannedy S, Weirich M, Brunner J, Mertins M. 2010. Perceptual evidence for allophonic variation of the palatal fricative [ç] in spontaneous Berlin German. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 128:2458 [Google Scholar]
  58. Johnson W, Britain D. 2007. L-vocalisation as a natural phenomenon: explorations in sociophonology. Lang. Sci. 29:294–315 [Google Scholar]
  59. Kerswill P, Wright S. 1990. The validity of phonetic transcription: Limitations of a sociolinguistic research tool. Lang. Var. Change 2:255–75 [Google Scholar]
  60. Khattab G. 2002. /l/ production in English–Arabic bilingual speakers. Int. J. Biling. 6:335–53 [Google Scholar]
  61. Labov W. 1984. Field methods of the project on linguistic change and variation. Language in Use: Readings in Sociolinguistics J Baugh, J Sherzer 28–53 Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall [Google Scholar]
  62. Labov W, Cohen P, Robins C, Lewis J. 1968. A Study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City Report on Cooperative Research Project 3288 New York: Columbia Univ. [Google Scholar]
  63. Lain S. 2012. Acoustic [voice] correlate variation by dialect: data from Venezuelan Spanish. Sociophonetics at the Crossroads of Speech Variation, Processing and Communication S Calamai, C Celata, L Ciucci 37–40 Pisa, Italy: Ed. Della Norm. [Google Scholar]
  64. Lawson E, Scobbie JM, Stuart-Smith J. 2011. The social stratification of tongue shape for postvocalic /r/ in Scottish English. J. Sociolinguist. 15:256–68 [Google Scholar]
  65. Lawson E, Scobbie JM, Stuart-Smith J. 2013. Bunched /r/ promotes vowel merger to schwar: an ultrasound tongue imaging study of Scottish sociophonetic variation. J. Phon. 41:198–210 [Google Scholar]
  66. Leemann A, Kolly M-J, Werlen I, Britain D, Studer-Joho D. 2014. The diffusion of /l/-vocalization in Swiss German. Lang. Var. Change 26:191–218 [Google Scholar]
  67. Levon E, Holmes-Elliott S. 2013. East End boys and West End girls: /s/-fronting in southeast England. Univ. Penn. Work. Pap. Linguist. 19:110–20 [Google Scholar]
  68. Macauley RKS. 1977. Language, Social Class, and Education: A Glasgow Study Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  69. Maclagan M, Watson CI, Harlow R, King J, Keegan P. 2009. /u/ fronting and /t/ aspiration in Māori and New Zealand English. Lang. Var. Change 21:175–92 [Google Scholar]
  70. Mack S, Munson B. 2012. The influence of /s/ quality on ratings of men's sexual orientation: Explicit and implicit measures of the ‘gay lisp’ stereotype. J. Phon. 40:198–212 [Google Scholar]
  71. Maguire W. 2012. Pre-r dentalisation in northern England. Engl. Lang. Linguist. 16:361–84 [Google Scholar]
  72. Matus-Mendoza M. 2004. Assibiliation of /-r/ and migration among Mexicans. Lang. Var. Change 16:17–30 [Google Scholar]
  73. Mesthrie R. 2012. Ethnicity, substrate, and place: the dynamics of Coloured and Indian English in five South African Cities in relation to the variable (t). Lang. Var. Change 24:371–95 [Google Scholar]
  74. Michnowicz J, Carpenter C. 2013. Voiceless stop aspiration in Yucatan Spanish. Spanish Context 10:410–37 [Google Scholar]
  75. Mielke J. 2013. Ultrasound and corpus study of a change from below: vowel rhoticity in Canadian French. Univ. Penn. Work. Pap. Linguist. 19:140–50 [Google Scholar]
  76. Mielke J, Baker A, Archangeli D. 2010. Variability and homogeneity in American English allophony and /s/ retraction. Variation, Detail, and Representation C Fougeron, B Kühnert, M D'Imperio 699–719 Berlin: de Gruyter [Google Scholar]
  77. Miller-Newman SE, Heaton H. 2011. Final stop accommodation in married couples Presented at Acoust. Soc. Am. Meet., 161st, Seattle [Google Scholar]
  78. Newlin-Łukowicz L. 2014. From interference to transfer in language contact: variation in voice onset time. Lang. Var. Change 26:359–85 [Google Scholar]
  79. Newman M. 2010. Focusing, implicational scaling, and the dialect status of New York Latino English. J. Sociolinguist. 14:207–39 [Google Scholar]
  80. Ocumpaugh JL. 2001. The variable chapter in the story of R: an acoustic analysis of a shift in final and pre-consonantal instances of American /r/ production in Louisburg, North Carolina. MA thesis, N. C. State Univ., Raleigh 76 [Google Scholar]
  81. Orton H, Sanderson S, Widdowson J. 1978. The Linguistic Atlas of England London: Croom Helm [Google Scholar]
  82. Pharao N, Maegaard M, Møller JS, Kristiansen T. 2014. Indexican meanings of [s+] among Copenhagen youth: social perception of a phonetic variant in different prosodic contexts. Lang. Soc. 43:1–31 [Google Scholar]
  83. Plug L, Ogden R. 2003. A parametric approach to the phonetics of postvocalic /r/ in Dutch. Phonetica 60:159–86 [Google Scholar]
  84. Podesva R, Roberts SJ, Campbell-Kibler K. 2002. Sharing resources and indexing meanings in the production of gay styles. Language and Sexuality: Contesting Meaning in Theory and Practice K. Campbell-Kibler, RJ Podesva, SJ Roberts, A Wong 175–89 Stanford, CA: Cent. Study Lang. Inf. [Google Scholar]
  85. Podesva R, Van Hofwegen J. 2014. How conservatism and normative gender constrain variation in inland California Presented at New Ways Anal. Var., 42nd, Pittsburgh [Google Scholar]
  86. Purnell TC. 2008. Prevelar raising and phonetic conditioning: role of labial and anterior tongue gestures. Am. Speech 83:373–402 [Google Scholar]
  87. Purnell TC, Salmons J, Tepeli D. 2005a. German substrate effects in Wisconsin English: evidence for final fortition. Am. Speech 80:135–64 [Google Scholar]
  88. Purnell TC, Salmons J, Tepeli D, Mercer J. 2005b. Structured heterogeneity and change in laryngeal phonetics: Upper Midwestern final obstruents. J. Engl. Linguist. 33:307–38 [Google Scholar]
  89. Recasens D, Espinosa A. 2005. Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects. J. Int. Phon. Assoc. 35:1–25 [Google Scholar]
  90. Recasens D, Fontdevila J, Pallarés MD. 1995. Velarization degree and coarticulatory resistance for /l/ in Catalan and German. J. Phon. 23:37–52 [Google Scholar]
  91. Rissel DA. 1989. Sex, attitudes, and the assibilation of /r/ among young people in San Luis Potosí, Mexico. Lang. Var. Change 1:269–83 [Google Scholar]
  92. Rohena-Madrazo M. 2011. Sociophonetic variation in the production and perception of obstruent voicing in Buenos Aires Spanish PhD thesis, Dep. Linguist., N.Y. Univ. [Google Scholar]
  93. Rutter B. 2011. Acoustic analysis of a sound change in progress: the consonant cluster /st/ in English. J. Int. Phonet. Assoc. 41:27–40 [Google Scholar]
  94. Scobbie JM. 2006. Flexibility in the face of incompatible English VOT systems. Laboratory Phonology 8 L. Goldstein, DH Whalen, CT Best 367–92 Berlin/New York: de Gruyter [Google Scholar]
  95. Scobbie JM, Sebregts KDCJ. 2011. Acoustic, articulatory and phonological perspectives on rhoticity and /r/ in Dutch. Interfaces in Linguistics: New Research Perspectives R Folli, C Ulbrich 257–77 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  96. Sebregts KDCJ. 2014. The Sociophonetics and Phonology of Dutch r Utrecht, Neth: Land. Onderz. Taalwet. [Google Scholar]
  97. Shapiro M. 1995. A case of distant assimilation: /str/→/∫tr/. Am. Speech 70:101–7 [Google Scholar]
  98. Sharma D. 2011. Style repertoire and social change in British Asian English. J. Sociolinguist. 15:464–92 [Google Scholar]
  99. Sharma D, Sankaran L. 2011. Cognitive and social factors in dialect shift: gradual change in London Asian speech. Lang. Var. Change 23:399–428 [Google Scholar]
  100. Shockey L. 1984. All in a flap: long-term accommodation in phonology. Int. J. Sociol. Lang. 46:87–95 [Google Scholar]
  101. Silva DJ. 2006. Variation in voice onset time for Korean stops: a case for recent sound change. Korean Linguist. 13:1–16 [Google Scholar]
  102. Slomanson P, Newman M. 2004. Peer group identification and variation in New York Latino English laterals. Engl. World-Wide 25:199–216 [Google Scholar]
  103. Sproat R, Fujimura O. 1993. Allophonic variation in English /l/ and its implications for phonetic implementation. J. Phon. 21:291–311 [Google Scholar]
  104. Stevens M, Hajek J. 2010a. Post-aspiration in standard Italian: some first cross-regional acoustic evidence. Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the International Speech Communication Association (INTERSPEECH 2010)1557–60 Baixas, France: Int. Speech Commun. Assoc. http://mirlab.org/conference_papers/International_Conference/Interspeech2010/ [Google Scholar]
  105. Stevens M, Hajek J. 2010b. Pre-aspirated /pp tt kk/ in standard Italian: a sociophonetic v. phonetic analysis. Proceedings of the 13th Australasian Annual Conference on Speech Science & Technology M Tabain, J Fletcher, D Grayden, J Hajek, A Butcher. Melbourne: Australas. Speech Sci. Technol. Assoc. [Google Scholar]
  106. Stölten K, Engstrand O. 2002. Effects of sex and age in the Arjeplog dialect: a listening test and measurements of preaspiration and VOT. Proc. Fon. Speech Music Hear. Q. Prog. Status Rep. 44:29–32 [Google Scholar]
  107. Straw M, Patrick PL. 2007. Dialect acquisition of glottal variation in /t/: Barbadians in Ipswich. Lang. Sci. 29:385–407 [Google Scholar]
  108. Stuart-Smith J. 2007a. Empirical evidence for gendered speech production: /s/ in Glaswegian. Laboratory Phonology 9 J Cole, JI Hualde 65–86 Berlin/New York: de Gruyter [Google Scholar]
  109. Stuart-Smith J. 2007b. A sociophonetic investigation of postvocalic /r/ in Glaswegian adolescents. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Phonetic Sciences J Trouvain, WJ Barry 1449–52 Saarbrücken, Ger: Pirrot [Google Scholar]
  110. Stuart-Smith J, Timmins C, Tweedie F. 2006. Conservation and innovation in a traditional dialect: L vocalization in Glaswegian. Engl. World-Wide 27:71–87 [Google Scholar]
  111. Syrika A, Kong EJ, Edwards J. 2011. Velar softening: an acoustic study in Modern Greek. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference of Phonetic Sciences W-S Lee, E Zee 1926–29 Hong Kong: City Univ. Hong Kong [Google Scholar]
  112. Takada M, Tomimori N. 2006. The relationship between VOT in initial voiced plosives and the phenomenon of word-medial plosives in Nigata and Shikoku. Spoken Language Corpus and Linguistic Informatics Y Kawaguchi, S Zaima, T Takagaki 365–79 Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins [Google Scholar]
  113. Thomas ER. 2011a. Sociolinguistic variables and cognition. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. 2:701–16 [Google Scholar]
  114. Thomas ER. 2011b. Sociophonetics: An Introduction Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave [Google Scholar]
  115. Thomas ER. 2014. L2 accent choices and language contact. Social Dynamics in Second Language Accent JM Levis, A Moyer 119–44 Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter [Google Scholar]
  116. Thomas ER, Van Hofwegen J. 2014. Consonantal variation in the English of a Spanish-substrate community. Proceedings of Methods XIV: Papers from the 14th International Conference on Methods in Dialectology, 2011 A Barysevich, A D'Arcy, D Heap 48–60 Frankfurt: Lang [Google Scholar]
  117. Tronnier M. 2002. Preaspiration in southern Swedish dialects. Proc. Fon. Speech Music Hear. Q. Prog. Status Rep. 44:33–36 [Google Scholar]
  118. Trudgill P. 1974. The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  119. Turton D. 2013. Contextual patterns of /l/-darkening in accents of English Presented at Ultrafest VI, Queen Margaret Univ., Edinburgh [Google Scholar]
  120. Turton D. 2014. Some /l/s are darker than others: accounting for variation in English /l/ with ultrasound tongue imaging. Univ. Penn. Work. Pap. Linguist. 20:189–98 [Google Scholar]
  121. Ulbrich C, Ulbrich H. 2007. The realisation of /r/ in Swiss German and Austrian German. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Phonetic Sciences J Trouvain, WJ Barry 1761–64 Saarbrücken, Ger: Pirrot [Google Scholar]
  122. Van Hofwegen J. 2009. Cross-generational change in /l/ in Chicano English. Engl. World-Wide 30:302–25 [Google Scholar]
  123. Wald B. 1981. Limitations on the application of the variable rule to bilingual phonology: the unmerging of the voiceless palatal phonemes in the English of Mexican Americans in the Los Angeles area. Variation Omnibus D Sankoff, H Cedergren 218–26 Carbondale, IL/Edmonton, AB: Linguist. Res. [Google Scholar]
  124. Warren P. 2006. /s/-retraction, /t/-deletion and regional variation in New Zealand English /str/ and /stj/ clusters. Proceedings of the 11th Australasian International Conference on Speech Science & Technology P Warren, CI Watson 466–71 Melbourne: Australas. Speech Sci. Technol. [Google Scholar]
  125. Willis EW. 2006. Trill variation in Dominican Spanish: an acoustic examination and comparative analysis. Selected Proceedings of the 9th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium N Sagarra, AJ Toribio 121–31 Somerville, MA: Cascadilla [Google Scholar]
  126. Willis EW. 2007. An acoustic study of the ‘pre-aspirated trill’ in narrative Cibaeño Dominican Spanish. J. Int. Phon. Assoc. 37:33–49 [Google Scholar]
  127. Willis EW, Bradley TG. 2008. Contrast maintenance of taps and trills in Dominican Spanish: data and analysis. Selected Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Laboratory Approaches to Spanish Phonetics and Phonology L Colantoni, J Steele 87–100 Somerville, MA: Cascadilla [Google Scholar]
  128. Wretling P, Strangert E, Schaeffler F. 2002. Quanitity and preaspiration in northern Sweden. Proceedings of Speech Prosody 2002: An International Conference B Bel, I Marlien Aix-en-Provence, France: Lab. Parole Lang., CNRS/Univ. Provence www.ling.gu.se/∼anders/SWEDIA/papers/wretling_sp2002.pdf [Google Scholar]
  129. Zhou X, Espy-Wilson CY, Boyce S, Tiede M, Holland C, Choe A. 2008. A magnetic resonance imaging-based articulatory and acoustic study of “retroflex” and “bunched” American English /r/. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 123:4466–81 [Google Scholar]
  130. Zimman L. 2013. The perceived sexuality of transgender men. J. Lang. Sex. 2:1–39 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011415-040534
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error