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- Volume 56, 2005
Annual Review of Psychology - Volume 56, 2005
Volume 56, 2005
- Preface
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In Search of Memory Traces
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 1–23More LessThe key issue in analyzing brain substrates of memory is the nature of memory traces, how memories are formed, stored, and retrieved in the brain. In order to analyze mechanisms of memory formation it is first necessary to find the loci of memory storage, the classic problem of localization. Various approaches to this issue are reviewed. A particular strategy is proposed that involves a number of different techniques (electrophysiological recording, lesions, electrical stimulation, pathway tracing) to identify the essential memory trace circuit for a given form of learning and memory. The methods of reversible inactivation can be used to localize the memory traces within this circuit. Using classical conditioning of eye blink and other discrete responses as a model system, the essential memory trace circuit is identified, the basic memory trace is localized (to the cerebellum), and putative higher-order memory traces are characterized in the hippocampus.
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Indeterminacy in Brain and Behavior
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 25–56More LessThe central goal of modern science that evolved during the Enlightenment was the empirical reduction of uncertainty by experimental inquiry. Although there have been challenges to this view in the physical sciences, where profoundly indeterminate events have been identified at the quantum level, the presumption that physical phenomena are fundamentally determinate seems to have defined modern behavioral science. Programs like those of the classical behaviorists, for example, were explicitly anchored to a fully deterministic worldview, and this anchoring clearly influenced the experiments that those scientists chose to perform. Recent advances in the psychological, social, and neural sciences, however, have caused a number of scholars to begin to question the assumption that all of behavior can be regarded as fundamentally deterministic in character. Although it is not yet clear whether the generative mechanisms for human and animal behavior will require a philosophically indeterminate approach, it is clear that behavioral scientists of all kinds are beginning to engage the issues of indeterminacy that plagued physics at the beginning of the twentieth century.
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Models of Brain Function in Neuroimaging
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 57–87More LessInferences about brain function, using neuroimaging data, rest on models of how the data were caused. These models can be quite diverse, ranging from conceptual models of functional anatomy to nonlinear mathematical models of hemodynamics. However, they all have to be internally consistent because they model the same thing. This consistency encompasses many levels of description and places constraints on the statistical models, adopted for data analysis, and the experimental designs they embody. The aim of this review is to introduce the key models used in imaging neuroscience and how they relate to each other. We start with anatomical models of functional brain architectures, which motivate some of the fundaments of neuroimaging. We then turn to basic statistical models (e.g., the general linear model) used for making classical and Bayesian inferences about where neuronal responses are expressed. By incorporating biophysical constraints, these basic models can be finessed and, in a dynamic setting, rendered causal. This allows us to infer how interactions among brain regions are mediated.
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Brain Organization for Music Processing
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 89–114More LessResearch on how the brain processes music is emerging as a rich and stimulating area of investigation of perception, memory, emotion, and performance. Results emanating from both lesion studies and neuroimaging techniques are reviewed and integrated for each of these musical functions. We focus our attention on the common core of musical abilities shared by musicians and nonmusicians alike. Hence, the effect of musical training on brain plasticity is examined in a separate section, after a review of the available data regarding music playing and reading skills that are typically cultivated by musicians. Finally, we address a currently debated issue regarding the putative existence of music-specific neural networks. Unfortunately, due to scarcity of research on the macrostructure of music organization and on cultural differences, the musical material under focus is at the level of the musical phrase, as typically used in Western popular music.
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Vestibular, Proprioceptive, and Haptic Contributions to Spatial Orientation
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 115–147More LessThe control and perception of body orientation and motion are subserved by multiple sensory and motor mechanisms ranging from relatively simple, peripheral mechanisms to complex ones involving the highest levels of cognitive function and sensory-motor integration. Vestibular contributions to body orientation and to spatial localization of auditory and visual stimuli have long been recognized. These contributions are reviewed here along with new insights relating to sensory-motor calibration of the body gained from space flight, parabolic flight, and artificial gravity environments. Recently recognized contributions of proprioceptive and somatosensory signals to the appreciation of body orientation and configuration are described. New techniques for stabilizing posture by means of haptic touch and for studying and modeling postural mechanisms are reviewed. Path integration, place cells, and head direction cells are described along with implications for using immersive virtual environments for training geographic spatial knowledge of real environments.
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Human Category Learning
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 149–178More LessMuch recent evidence suggests some dramatic differences in the way people learn perceptual categories, depending on exactly how the categories were constructed. Four different kinds of category-learning tasks are currently popular—rule-based tasks, information-integration tasks, prototype distortion tasks, and the weather prediction task. The cognitive, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging results obtained using these four tasks are qualitatively different. Success in rule-based (explicit reasoning) tasks depends on frontal-striatal circuits and requires working memory and executive attention. Success in information-integration tasks requires a form of procedural learning and is sensitive to the nature and timing of feedback. Prototype distortion tasks induce perceptual (visual cortical) learning. A variety of different strategies can lead to success in the weather prediction task. Collectively, results from these four tasks provide strong evidence that human category learning is mediated by multiple, qualitatively distinct systems.
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Pavlovian Conditioning: A Functional Perspective
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 179–206More LessFrom a functional perspective, Pavlovian conditioning involves learning about conditioned stimuli (CSs) that have a pre-existing relation to an unconditioned stimulus (US) rather than learning about arbitrary or neutral CSs. In addition, the most important product of learning involves changes in how the organism responds to the US, not in how it responds to the CS, because the US is the more biologically relevant stimulus. These concepts are illustrated using examples from a variety of behavioral and physiological situations including caloric intake and digestion, breast feeding, poison-avoidance learning, eyeblink conditioning, sexual conditioning, fear conditioning, aggression, and drug tolerance and sensitization.
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The Neuroscience of Mammalian Associative Learning
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 207–234More LessMammalian associative learning is organized into separate anatomically defined functional systems. We illustrate the organization of two of these systems, Pavlovian fear conditioning and Pavlovian eyeblink conditioning, by describing studies using mutant mice, brain stimulation and recording, brain lesions and direct pharmacological manipulations of specific brain regions. The amygdala serves as the neuroanatomical hub of the former, whereas the cerebellum is the hub of the latter. Pathways that carry information about signals for biologically important events arrive at these hubs by circuitry that depends on stimulus modality and complexity. Within the amygdala and cerebellum, neural plasticity occurs because of convergence of these stimuli and the biologically important information they predict. This neural plasticity is the physical basis of associative memory formation, and although the intracellular mechanisms of plasticity within these structures share some similarities, they differ significantly. The last Annual Reviewof Psychology article to specifically tackle the question of mammalian associative learning (Lavond et al. 1993) persuasively argued that identifiable “essential” circuits encode memories formed during associative learning. The next dozen years saw breathtaking progress not only in detailing those essential circuits but also in identifying the essential processes occurring at the synapses (e.g., Bi & Poo 2001, Martinez & Derrick 1996) and within the neurons (e.g., Malinow & Malenka 2002, Murthy & De Camilli 2003) that make up those circuits. In this chapter, we describe the orientation that the neuroscience of learning has taken and review some of the progress made within that orientation.
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Behavioral Inhibition: Linking Biology and Behavior within a Developmental Framework
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 235–262More LessBehavioral inhibition refers to a temperament or style of reacting that some infants and young children exhibit when confronted with novel situations or unfamiliar adults or peers. Research on behavioral inhibition has examined the link between this set of behaviors to the neural systems involved in the experience and expression of fear. There are strong parallels between the physiology of behaviorally inhibited children and the activation of physiological systems associated with conditioned and unconditioned fear. Research has examined which caregiving behaviors support the frequency of behavioral inhibition across development, and work on the interface of cognitive processes and behavioral inhibition reveal both how certain cognitive processes moderate behavioral inhibition and how this temperament affects the development of cognition. This research has taken place within a context of the possibility that stable behavioral inhibition may be a risk factor for psychopathology, particularly anxiety disorders in older children. The current chapter reviews these areas of research and provides an integrative account of the broad impact of behavioral inhibition research.
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Human Development: Biological and Genetic Processes
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 263–286More LessAdaptation is a central organizing principle throughout biology, whether we are studying species, populations, or individuals. Adaptation in biological systems occurs in response to molar and molecular environments. Thus, we would predict that genetic systems and nervous systems would be dynamic (cybernetic) in contrast to previous conceptualizations with genes and brains fixed in form and function. Questions of nature versus nurture are meaningless, and we must turn to epigenetics—the way in which biology and experience work together to enhance adaptation throughout thick and thin. Defining endophenotypes—road markers that bring us closer to the biological origins of the developmental journey—facilitates our understanding of adaptive or maladaptive processes. For human behavioral disorders such as schizophrenia and autism, the inherent plasticity of the nervous system requires a systems approach to incorporate all of the myriad epigenetic factors that can influence such outcomes.
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The Psychology and Neurobiology of Suicidal Behavior
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 287–314More LessSuicide is a leading cause of death, but it is not well understood or well researched. Our purpose in this review is to summarize extant knowledge on neurobiological and psychological factors involved in suicide, with specific goals of identifying areas particularly in need of future research and of articulating an initial agenda that may guide future research. We conclude that from both neurobiological and psychological perspectives, extant research findings converge on the view that two general categories of risk for suicide can be identified: (a) dysregulated impulse control; and (b) propensity to intense psychological pain (e.g., social isolation, hopelessness), often in the context of mental disorders, especially mood disorders. Each of these categories of risk is underlain at least to some degree by specific genetic and neurobiological factors; these factors in general are not well characterized, though there is emerging consensus that most if not all reside in or affect the serotonergic system. We encourage future theorizing that is conceptually precise, as well as epistemically broad, about the specific preconditions of serious suicidal behavior, explaining the daunting array of suicide-related facts from the molecular to the cultural level.
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Autism in Infancy and Early Childhood
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 315–336More LessAlthough initially described as an inborn disorder of affective contact, information on autism as it exists in infants has been limited. Delays in diagnosis, lack of information about the condition, and reliance on retrospective research strategies have been problematic. An awareness of the increased risk for siblings is now allowing the development of new, prospective approaches. Consistent with Kanner's original hypothesis, the available information strongly suggests a fundamental difficulty in the earliest social processes, which, in turn, impacts many other areas of development. New approaches to screening have lowered the age of initial diagnosis; this presents new challenges for early intervention. Directions for future research are highlighted.
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Youth Psychotherapy Outcome Research: A Review and Critique of the Evidence Base
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 337–363More LessOver the past four decades, researchers have produced extensive evidence on psychotherapy for youth mental health problems and disorders. The evidence often has been evaluated through narrative reviews and through meta-analyses assessing the magnitude of treatment effects, but methodological analysis addressing the character and quality of the evidence base itself is an important complement, needed to place treatment effects in perspective and to suggest directions for future research. We carried out such an analysis, focusing on all the methodologically acceptable published randomized trials our search identified involving treatment of anxiety, depression, ADHD and related conditions, and conduct-related problems and disorders. The 236 studies tested 383 treatments and included 427 treatment-control comparisons, spanning the years 1962 through 2002. The analysis revealed considerable breadth, diversity, and rigor in the measurement approaches used to assess participant characteristics and treatment outcomes. However, reporting on important sample characteristics (e.g., ethnicity) showed major gaps, and more than half the studies failed to use well-standardized procedures to ensure appropriate sample selection. Because sample sizes left most studies underpowered, and procedures to enhance treatment fidelity were generally weak, many of the treatments investigated may not have received fair tests. Studies were particularly weak in clinical representativeness of their samples, therapists, and settings, suggesting a need for increased emphasis on external validity in youth treatment research.
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Prosocial Behavior: Multilevel Perspectives
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 365–392More LessCurrent research on prosocial behavior covers a broad and diverse range of phenomena. We argue that this large research literature can be best organized and understood from a multilevel perspective. We identify three levels of analysis of prosocial behavior: (a) the “meso” level—the study of helper-recipient dyads in the context of a specific situation; (b) the micro level—the study of the origins of prosocial tendencies and the sources of variation in these tendencies; and (c) the macro level—the study of prosocial actions that occur within the context of groups and large organizations. We present research at each level and discuss similarities and differences across levels. Finally, we consider ways in which theory and research at these three levels of analysis might be combined in future intra- and interdisciplinary research on prosocial behavior.
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The Social Psychology of Stigma
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 393–421More LessThis chapter addresses the psychological effects of social stigma. Stigma directly affects the stigmatized via mechanisms of discrimination, expectancy confirmation, and automatic stereotype activation, and indirectly via threats to personal and social identity. We review and organize recent theory and empirical research within an identity threat model of stigma. This model posits that situational cues, collective representations of one's stigma status, and personal beliefs and motives shape appraisals of the significance of stigma-relevant situations for well-being. Identity threat results when stigma-relevant stressors are appraised as potentially harmful to one's social identity and as exceeding one's coping resources. Identity threat creates involuntary stress responses and motivates attempts at threat reduction through coping strategies. Stress responses and coping efforts affect important outcomes such as self-esteem, academic achievement, and health. Identity threat perspectives help to explain the tremendous variability across people, groups, and situations in responses to stigma.
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Personality Architecture: Within-Person Structures and Processes
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 423–452More LessThis chapter reviews theory and research on intraindividual personality structures and processes. Principles for modeling the architecture of personality, that is, the overall design and operating characteristics of intraindividual personality systems, are addressed. Research demonstrates that a focus on within-person structures and processes advances the understanding of two aspects of personality coherence: the functional relations among distinct elements of personality, and cross-situational coherence in personality functioning that results from interactions among enduring knowledge structures and dynamic appraisal processes. Also reviewed are recent conceptual and empirical advances, which demonstrate that the interindividual personality variables that summarize variability in the population are wholly insufficient for modeling intraindividual personality architecture.
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Personality Development: Stability and Change
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 453–484More LessIn this review, we evaluate four topics in the study of personality development where discernible progress has been made since 1995 (the last time the area of personality development was reviewed in this series). We (a) evaluate research about the structure of personality in childhood and in adulthood, with special attention to possible developmental changes in the lower-order components of broad traits; (b) summarize new directions in behavioral genetic studies of personality; (c) synthesize evidence from longitudinal studies to pinpoint where and when in the life course personality change is most likely to occur; and (d) document which personality traits influence social relationships, status attainment, and health, and the mechanisms by which these personality effects come about. In each of these four areas, we note gaps and identify priorities for further research.
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Work Motivation Theory and Research at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 485–516More LessIn the first Annual Review of Psychology chapter since 1977 devoted exclusively to work motivation, we examine progress made in theory and research on needs, traits, values, cognition, and affect as well as three bodies of literature dealing with the context of motivation: national culture, job design, and models of person-environment fit. We focus primarily on work reported between 1993 and 2003, concluding that goal-setting, social cognitive, and organizational justice theories are the three most important approaches to work motivation to appear in the last 30 years. We reach 10 generally positive conclusions regarding predicting, understanding, and influencing work motivation in the new millennium.
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Teams in Organizations: From Input-Process-Output Models to IMOI Models
Vol. 56 (2005), pp. 517–543More LessThis review examines research and theory relevant to work groups and teams typically embedded in organizations and existing over time, although many studies reviewed were conducted in other settings, including the laboratory. Research was organized around a two-dimensional system based on time and the nature of explanatory mechanisms that mediated between team inputs and outcomes. These mechanisms were affective, behavioral, cognitive, or some combination of the three. Recent theoretical and methodological work is discussed that has advanced our understanding of teams as complex, multilevel systems that function over time, tasks, and contexts. The state of both the empirical and theoretical work is compared as to its impact on present knowledge and future directions.
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Previous Volumes
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Volume 76 (2025)
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Volume 75 (2024)
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Volume 74 (2023)
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Volume 73 (2022)
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Volume 72 (2021)
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Volume 71 (2020)
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Volume 70 (2019)
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Volume 69 (2018)
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Volume 68 (2017)
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Volume 67 (2016)
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Volume 66 (2015)
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Volume 65 (2014)
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Volume 64 (2013)
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Volume 63 (2012)
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Volume 62 (2011)
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Volume 61 (2010)
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Volume 60 (2009)
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Volume 59 (2008)
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Volume 58 (2007)
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Volume 57 (2006)
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Volume 56 (2005)
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Volume 55 (2004)
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Volume 54 (2003)
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Volume 53 (2002)
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Volume 52 (2001)
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Volume 51 (2000)
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Volume 50 (1999)
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Volume 49 (1998)
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Volume 48 (1997)
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Volume 47 (1996)
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Volume 46 (1995)
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Volume 45 (1994)
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Volume 44 (1993)
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Volume 43 (1992)
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Volume 42 (1991)
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Volume 41 (1990)
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Volume 40 (1989)
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Volume 39 (1988)
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Volume 38 (1987)
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Volume 37 (1986)
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Volume 36 (1985)
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Volume 35 (1984)
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Volume 34 (1983)
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Volume 33 (1982)
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Volume 32 (1981)
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Volume 31 (1980)
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Volume 30 (1979)
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Volume 29 (1978)
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Volume 28 (1977)
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Volume 27 (1976)
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Volume 26 (1975)
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Volume 25 (1974)
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Volume 24 (1973)
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Volume 23 (1972)
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Volume 22 (1971)
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Volume 21 (1970)
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Volume 20 (1969)
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Volume 19 (1968)
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Volume 18 (1967)
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Volume 17 (1966)
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Volume 16 (1965)
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Volume 15 (1964)
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Volume 14 (1963)
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Volume 13 (1962)
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Volume 12 (1961)
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Volume 11 (1960)
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Volume 10 (1959)
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Volume 9 (1958)
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Volume 8 (1957)
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Volume 7 (1956)
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Volume 6 (1955)
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Volume 5 (1954)
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Volume 4 (1953)
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Volume 3 (1952)
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Volume 2 (1951)
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Volume 1 (1950)
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Volume 0 (1932)