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- Volume 17, 2001
Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology - Volume 17, 2001
Volume 17, 2001
- Preface
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- Review Articles
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Chemical and Biological Strategies for Engineering Cell Surface Glycosylation
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 1–23More Less▪ AbstractOligosaccharides play a crucial role in many of the recognition, signaling, and adhesion events that take place at the surface of cells. Abnormalities in the synthesis or presentation of these carbohydrates can lead to misfolded and inactive proteins, as well as to several debilitating disease states. However, their diverse structures, which are the key to their function, have hampered studies by biologists and chemists alike. This review presents an overview of techniques for examining and manipulating cell surface oligosaccharides through genetic, enzymatic, and chemical strategies.
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Thrombospondins: Multifunctional Regulators of Cell Interactions
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 25–51More Less▪ AbstractThrombospondins are secreted, multidomain macromolecules that act as regulators of cell interactions in vertebrates. Gene knockout mice constructed for two members of this family demonstrate roles in the organization and homeostasis of multiple tissues, with particularly significant activities in the regulation of angiogenesis. This review discusses the functions of thrombospondins with regard to their cellular mechanisms of action and highlights recent advances in understanding how multifactorial molecular interactions, at the cell surface and within extracellular matrix, produce cell-type-specific effects on cell behavior and the organization of matrix and tissues.
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Salmonella Interactions with Host Cells: Type III Secretion at Work
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 53–86More Less▪ AbstractThe bacterial pathogen Salmonella enterica has evolved a very sophisticated functional interface with its vertebrate hosts. At the center of this interface is a specialized organelle, the type III secretion system, that directs the translocation of bacterial proteins into the host cell. Salmonella spp. encode two such systems that deliver a remarkable array of bacterial proteins capable of modulating a variety of cellular functions, including actin cytoskeleton dynamics, nuclear responses, and endocytic trafficking. Many of these bacterial proteins operate by faithful mimicry of host proteins, in some cases representing the result of extensive molecular tinkering and convergent evolution. The coordinated action of these type III secreted proteins secures the replication and survival of the bacteria avoiding overt damage to the host. The study of this remarkable pathogen is not only illuminating general paradigms in microbial pathogenesis but is also providing valuable insight into host cell functions.
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Patterning Mechanisms Controlling Vertebrate Limb Development
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 87–132More Less▪ AbstractVertebrate limb buds are embryonic structures for which much molecular and cellular data are known regarding the mechanisms that control pattern formation during development. Specialized regions of the developing limb bud, such as the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA), the apical ectodermal ridge (AER), and the non-ridge ectoderm, direct and coordinate the development of the limb bud along the anterior-posterior (AP), dorsal-ventral (DV), and proximal-distal (PD) axes, giving rise to a stereotyped pattern of elements well conserved among tetrapods. In recent years, specific gene functions have been shown to mediate the organizing and patterning activities of the ZPA, the AER, and the non-ridge ectoderm. The analysis of these gene functions has revealed the existence of complex interactions between signaling pathways operated by secreted factors of the HH, TGF-β/BMP, WNT, and FGF superfamilies, which interact with many other genetic networks to control limb positioning, outgrowth, and patterning. The study of limb development has helped to establish paradigms for the analysis of pattern formation in many other embryonic structures and organs.
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Identification of Self Through Two-Dimensional Chemistry and Synapses
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 133–157More Less▪ AbstractCells in the immune and nervous systems communicate through informational synapses. The two-dimensional chemistry underlying the process of synapse formation is beginning to be explored using fluorescence imaging and mechanical techniques. Early analysis of two-dimensional kinetic rates (kon and koff) and equilibrium constants (Kd) provides a number of biological insights. First, there are two regimes for adhesion—one disordered with slow kon and the other self-ordered with 104-fold faster kon. Despite huge variation in two-dimensional kon, the two-dimensional koff is like koff in solution, and two-dimensional koff is more closely related to intrinsic properties of the interaction than the two-dimensional kon. Thus difference in koff can be used to set signaling thresholds. Early signaling complexes are compartmentalized to generate synergistic signaling domains. Immune antigen receptor components have a role in neural synapse editing. This suggests significant parallels in informational synapse formation based on common two-dimensional chemistry and signaling strategies.
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Polarized Cell Growth in Higher Plants
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 159–187More Less▪ AbstractPollen tubes and root hairs are highly elongated, cylindrically shaped cells whose polarized growth permits them to explore the environment for the benefit of the entire plant. Root hairs create an enormous surface area for the uptake of water and nutrients, whereas pollen tubes deliver the sperm cells to the ovule for fertilization. These cells grow exclusively at the apex and at prodigious rates (in excess of 200 nm/s for pollen tubes). Underlying this rapid growth are polarized ion gradients and fluxes, turnover of cytoskeletal elements (actin microfilaments), and exocytosis and endocytosis of membrane vesicles. Intracellular gradients of calcium and protons are spatially localized at the growing apex; inward fluxes of these ions are apically directed. These gradients and fluxes oscillate with the same frequency as the oscillations in growth rate but not with the same phase. Actin microfilaments, which together with myosin generate reverse fountain streaming, undergo rapid turnover in the apical domain, possibly being regulated by key actin-binding proteins, e.g., profilin, villin, and ADF/cofilin, in concert with the ion gradients. Exocytosis of vesicles at the apex, also dependent on the ion gradients, provides precursor material for the continuously expanding cell wall of the growing cell. Elucidation of the interactions and of the dynamics of these different components is providing unique insight into the mechanisms of polarized growth.
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Boundaries in Development: Formation and Function
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 189–214More Less▪ AbstractDeveloping organisms may contain billions of cells destined to differentiate in numerous different ways. One strategy organisms use to simplify the orchestration of development is the separation of cell populations into distinct functional units. Our expanding knowledge of boundary formation and function in different systems is beginning to reveal general principles of this process. Fields of cells are subdivided by the interpretation of morphogen gradients, and these subdivisions are then maintained and refined by local cell-cell interactions. Sharp and stable separation between cell populations requires special mechanisms to keep cells segregated, which in many cases appear to involve the regulation of cell affinity. Once cell populations become distinct, specialized cells are often induced along the borders between them. These boundary cells can then influence the patterning of surrounding cells, which can result in progressively finer subdivisions of a tissue. Much has been learned about the signaling pathways that establish boundaries, but a key challenge for the future remains to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms that actually keep cell populations separated.
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Molecular Bases of Circadian Rhythms
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 215–253More Less▪ AbstractCircadian rhythms are found in most eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. The mechanism by which organisms maintain these roughly 24-h rhythms in the absence of environmental stimuli has long been a mystery and has recently been the subject of intense research. In the past few years, we have seen explosive progress in the understanding of the molecular basis of circadian rhythms in model systems ranging from cyanobacteria to mammals. This review attempts to outline these primarily genetic and biochemical findings and encompasses work done in cyanobacteria, Neurospora, higher plants, Drosophila, and rodents. Although actual clock components do not seem to be conserved between kingdoms, central clock mechanisms are conserved. Somewhat paradoxically, clock components that are conserved between species can be used in diverse ways. The different uses of common components may reflect the important role that the circadian clock plays in adaptation of species to particular environmental niches.
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Early Eye Development in Vertebrates
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 255–296More Less▪ AbstractThis review provides a synthesis that combines data from classical experimentation and recent advances in our understanding of early eye development. Emphasis is placed on the events that underlie and direct neural retina formation and lens induction. Understanding these events represents a longstanding problem in developmental biology. Early interest can be attributed to the curiosity generated by the relatively frequent occurrence of disorders such as cyclopia and anophthalmia, in which dramatic changes in eye development are readily observed. However, it was the advent of experimental embryology at the turn of the century that transformed curiosity into active investigation. Pioneered by investigators such as Spemann and Adelmann, these embryological manipulations have left a profound legacy. Questions about early eye development first addressed using tissue manipulations remain topical as we try to understand the molecular basis of this process.
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RNP Localization and Transport in Yeast
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 297–310More Less▪ AbstractThe localization of mRNAs is used by various types of polarized cells to locally translate specific proteins, which restricts their distribution to a particular sub-region of the cytoplasm. This mechanism of protein sorting is involved in major biological processes such as asymmetric cell division, oogenesis, cellular motility, and synapse formation. With the finding of localized mRNAs in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it is now possible to benefit from the powerful yeast laboratory tools to explore the molecular basis of RNA localization. Because mRNA transport and localization in yeast share many features with RNA localization in higher eukaryotes, including the formation of a large ribonucleoprotein (RNP) localization complex, the requirement of a polarized cytoskeleton and molecular motors, and the role of nuclear RNA-binding proteins in cytoplasmic localization, the yeast can be used as a paradigm for unraveling the molecular aspects of this process. This review summarizes the current knowledge on RNP transport and localization in yeast.
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Vertebrate Somitogenesis
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 311–350More Less▪ AbstractIn vertebrates, the paraxial mesoderm corresponds to the bilateral strips of mesodermal tissue flanking the notochord and neural tube and which are delimited laterally by the intermediate mesoderm and the lateral plate. The paraxial mesoderm comprises the head or cephalic mesoderm anteriorly and the somitic region throughout the trunk and the tail of the vertebrates. Soon after gastrulation, the somitic region of vertebrates starts to become segmented into paired blocks of mesoderm, termed somites. This process lasts until the number of somites characteristic of the species is reached. The somites later give rise to all skeletal muscles of the body, the axial skeleton, and part of the dermis. In this review I discuss the processes involved in the formation of the paraxial mesoderm and its segmentation into somites in vertebrates.
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Animal Cell Cytokinesis
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 351–386More Less▪ AbstractCytokinesis creates two daughter cells endowed with a complete set of chromosomes and cytoplasmic organelles. This conceptually simple event is mediated by a complex and dynamic interplay between the microtubules of the mitotic spindle, the actomyosin cytoskeleton, and membrane fusion events. For many decades the study of cytokinesis was driven by morphological studies on specimens amenable to physical manipulation. The studies led to great insights into the cellular structures that orchestrate cell division, but the underlying molecular machinery was largely unknown. Molecular and genetic approaches have now allowed the initial steps in the development of a molecular understanding of this fundamental event in the life of a cell. This review provides an overview of the literature on cytokinesis with a particular emphasis on the molecular pathways involved in the division of animal cells.
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Stem and Progenitor Cells: Origins, Phenotypes, Lineage Commitments, and Transdifferentiations
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 387–403More Less▪ AbstractMultipotent stem cells are clonal cells that self-renew as well as differentiate to regenerate adult tissues. Whereas stem cells and their fates are known by unique genetic marker studies, the fate and function of these cells are best studied by their prospective isolation. This review is about the properties of various highly purified tissue-specific multipotent stem cells and purified oligolineage progenitors. We contend that unless the stem or progenitor cells in question have been purified to near homogeneity, one cannot know whether their generation of expected (or unexpected) progeny is a property of a known cell type. It is interesting that in the hematopoietic system the only long-term self-renewing cells in the stem and progenitors pool are the hematopoietic stem cells. This fact is discussed in the context of normal and leukemic hematopoiesis.
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Recent Advances in Chemical Approaches to the Study of Biological Systems
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 405–433More Less▪ AbstractA number of novel chemical methods for studying biological systems have recently been developed that provide a means of addressing biological questions not easily studied with other techniques. In this review, examples that highlight the development and use of such chemical approaches are discussed. Specifically, strategies for modulating protein activity or protein-protein interactions using small molecules are presented. In addition, methods for generating and utilizing novel biomolecules (proteins, oligonucleotides, oligosaccharides, and second messengers) are examined.
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Embryo-Derived Stem Cells: Of Mice and Men
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 435–462More Less▪ AbstractMouse embryonic stem cells are continuous cell lines derived directly from the fetal founder tissue of the preimplantation embryo. They can be expanded in culture while retaining the functional attributes of pluripotent early embryo cells. In particular, they can participate fully in fetal development when reintroduced into the embryo. The capacity for multilineage differentiation is reproduced in culture where embryonic stem cells can produce a wide range of well-defined cell types. This has stimulated interest in the isolation of analogous cells of human origin. Such human pluripotent stem cells could constitute a renewable source of more differentiated cells that could be employed to replace diseased or damaged tissue by cellular transplantation. In this review, the relationships between mouse embryonic stem cells, resident pluripotent cells in the embryo, and human embryo-derived cell lines are evaluated, and the prospects and challenges of embryo stem cell research are considered.
This review is dedicated to Rosa Beddington FRS, a great developmental biologist, a wonderful colleague, and an inspirational advocate of human stem cell research.
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How Matrix Metalloproteinases Regulate Cell Behavior
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 463–516More Less▪ AbstractThe matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) constitute a multigene family of over 25 secreted and cell surface enzymes that process or degrade numerous pericellular substrates. Their targets include other proteinases, proteinase inhibitors, clotting factors, chemotactic molecules, latent growth factors, growth factor–binding proteins, cell surface receptors, cell-cell adhesion molecules, and virtually all structural extracellular matrix proteins. Thus MMPs are able to regulate many biologic processes and are closely regulated themselves. We review recent advances that help to explain how MMPs work, how they are controlled, and how they influence biologic behavior. These advances shed light on how the structure and function of the MMPs are related and on how their transcription, secretion, activation, inhibition, localization, and clearance are controlled. MMPs participate in numerous normal and abnormal processes, and there are new insights into the key substrates and mechanisms responsible for regulating some of these processes in vivo. Our knowledge in the field of MMP biology is rapidly expanding, yet we still do not fully understand how these enzymes regulate most processes of development, homeostasis, and disease.
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Biological Basket Weaving: Formation and Function of Clathrin-Coated Vesicles
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 517–568More Less▪ AbstractThere has recently been considerable progress in understanding the regulation of clathrin-coated vesicle (CCV) formation and function. These advances are due to the determination of the structure of a number of CCV coat components at molecular resolution and the identification of novel regulatory proteins that control CCV formation in the cell. In addition, pathways of (a) phosphorylation, (b) receptor signaling, and (c) lipid modification that influence CCV formation, as well as the interaction between the cytoskeleton and CCV transport pathways are becoming better defined. It is evident that although clathrin coat assembly drives CCV formation, this fundamental reaction is modified by different regulatory proteins, depending on where CCVs are forming in the cell. This regulatory difference likely reflects the distinct biological roles of CCVs at the plasma membrane and trans-Golgi network, as well as the distinct properties of these membranes themselves. Tissue-specific functions of CCVs require even more-specialized regulation and defects in these pathways can now be correlated with human diseases.
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Getting the Message Across: The Intracellular Localization of mRNAs in Higher Eukaryotes
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 569–614More Less▪ AbstractThe intracellular localization of mRNA, a common mechanism for targeting proteins to specific regions of the cell, probably occurs in most if not all polarized cell types. Many of the best characterized localized mRNAs are found in oocytes and early embryos, where they function as localized determinants that control axis formation and the development of the germline. However, mRNA localization has also been shown to play an important role in somatic cells, such as neurons, where it may be involved in learning and memory. mRNAs can be localized by a variety of mechanisms including local protection from degradation, diffusion to a localized anchor, and active transport, and we consider the evidence for each of these processes, before discussing the cis-acting elements that direct the localization of specific mRNAs and the trans-acting factors that bind them.
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Cellular Function of Phosphoinositide 3-Kinases: Implications for Development, Immunity, Homeostasis, and Cancer
Vol. 17 (2001), pp. 615–675More Less▪ AbstractThe phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) family of enzymes is recruited upon growth factor receptor activation and produces 3′ phosphoinositide lipids. The lipid products of PI3K act as second messengers by binding to and activating diverse cellular target proteins. These events constitute the start of a complex signaling cascade, which ultimately results in the mediation of cellular activities such as proliferation, differentiation, chemotaxis, survival, trafficking, and glucose homeostasis. Therefore, PI3Ks play a central role in many cellular functions. The factors that determine which cellular function is mediated are complex and may be partly attributed to the diversity that exists at each level of the PI3K signaling cascade, such as the type of stimulus, the isoform of PI3K, or the nature of the second messenger lipids. Numerous studies have helped to elucidate some of the key factors that determine cell fate in the context of PI3K signaling. For example, the past two years has seen the publication of many transgenic and knockout mouse studies where either PI3K or its signaling components are deregulated. These models have helped to build a picture of the role of PI3K in physiology and indeed there have been a number of surprises. This review uses such models as a framework to build a profile of PI3K function within both the cell and the organism and focuses, in particular, on the role of PI3K in cell regulation, immunity, and development. The evidence for the role of deregulated PI3K signaling in diseases such as cancer and diabetes is reviewed.
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Previous Volumes
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Volume 40 (2024)
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Volume 39 (2023)
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Volume 38 (2022)
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Volume 37 (2021)
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Volume 36 (2020)
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Volume 35 (2019)
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Volume 34 (2018)
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Volume 33 (2017)
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Volume 32 (2016)
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Volume 31 (2015)
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Volume 30 (2014)
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Volume 29 (2013)
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Volume 28 (2012)
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Volume 27 (2011)
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Volume 26 (2010)
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Volume 25 (2009)
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Volume 24 (2008)
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Volume 23 (2007)
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Volume 22 (2006)
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Volume 21 (2005)
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Volume 20 (2004)
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Volume 19 (2003)
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Volume 18 (2002)
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Volume 17 (2001)
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Volume 16 (2000)
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Volume 15 (1999)
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Volume 14 (1998)
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Volume 13 (1997)
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Volume 12 (1996)
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Volume 11 (1995)
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Volume 10 (1994)
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Volume 9 (1993)
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Volume 8 (1992)
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Volume 7 (1991)
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Volume 6 (1990)
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Volume 5 (1989)
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Volume 4 (1988)
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Volume 3 (1987)
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Volume 2 (1986)
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Volume 1 (1985)
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Volume 0 (1932)